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神學/神學資料

기독교

by 이덕휴-dhleepaul 2021. 2. 13.

 

 

기독교

 

나사렛 예수 삶과 가르침에 기초한 아브라함 일신교 종교이다. 그리스도인으로 알려진 그 신봉자들은 예수 그리스도이며, 메시야가 히브리어 성경에서 예언되어 기독교의 구약전서라고 불리며 신약전서에 기록되었다고 믿습니다. [1] 2020년 현재 약 24억 명의 팔로워를 보유한 세계에서 가장 큰 종교입니다. [2] 기독교인은 157 개 국가와 영토에서인구의 대부분을 구성합니다. [3]

기독교는 서구와 동부 지부뿐만 아니라 구원의 정당성과 본질, 형절, 성교, 그리스도교에관한 교리에서 문화적으로 다양합니다. 그들의 신조는 예수 일반적으로 하나님의 아들―로고가 육신화된―성역을 하고, 고통을 당하고, 십자가에서 죽었지만,인류의 구원을 위해 죽은 자들로부터 일어났다. 이것은 "좋은 소식"을의미하는 복음이라고 합니다. 예수 삶과 가르침을 설명하는 것은 구약전서와 복음의 존경받는 배경이 되는 마태복음, 마가복음, 누가복음, 요한의네 가지 정경적인 복음서이다.

기독교는 유대의 로마 지방에서 1 세기에 두 번째 사원 유대 교파로 시작했다. 예수 사도들과 그들의 추종자들은 레반트, 유럽, 아나토리아, 메소포타미아, 트랜스코카시아, 이집트, 에티오피아를 둘러싸고 초기 박해에도 불구하고 퍼졌다. 그것은 곧 유대인의 관습에서출발을 주도 이방인 하나님 - 두려움을끌었다, 예루살렘의 몰락 후, 성전기반 유대교를 종료 AD 70, 기독교는 천천히 유대교에서 분리. 콘스탄틴 황제는 밀라노 의 칙령에 의해 로마 제국에서 위대한 비범죄 기독교 (313), 나중에 초기 기독교가 로마 제국의 국가 교회가 될 것입니다 무엇으로 통합 된 니카에아 위원회 (325)를 소집(380). 주요 분열 이전의 기독교 연합 교회의 초기 역사는 때때로"위대한교회"(이테로독스 종파가 그노시스 기독교와 유대인 기독교인을포함하여 동시에 존재했음에도 불구하고)로 불립니다. 

동교회는 에베서스 의회(431)와 동양 정교회가 크리스탈로지의차이를 놓고 갈라진 후 분열되었고,동부 정교회와 가톨릭 교회는 동서 분열(1054년)에서 분리되어 특히 로마 주교의권위를 둘러싸고 분열되었다. 여러 교단의 개신교는 종교 개혁 시대(16세기)에 있는 가톨릭 교회에서 신학적  민족적 논쟁을 둘러싸고, 대부분 로마 주교의 정당성과 우선주의에관한 것이다. 기독교는 서구 문명의 발전에 중요한 역할을했다, 특히 후기 고대와 중세에서유럽에서. [5][6] [7][7][8][9] 발견의 시대 (15~17세기) 기독교는 미주, 오세아니아, 사하라 사막 이남의 아프리카,그리고 선교 사업을 통해 전 세계로 퍼졌다. [10][11][12]

 

기독교의 네 개의 가장 큰 지점은 가톨릭 교회 (13 억 / 50.1%), 개신교 (9억 2천만 / 36.7%), 동부 정교회 (2억 3천만) 및 동양 정교회 (6200 만 / 정교회 결합 11.9%),[13] [14]통일을 향한 다양한 노력 가운데 (에큐메니즘). [15] 서구의 준수가 감소했음에도 불구하고 기독교는 이 지역의 지배적인 종교로 남아 있으며, 인구의 약 70%가 기독교인으로 식별되고 있다. [16] 세계에서 가장 인구가 많은 대륙인 아프리카와 아시아에서 기독교가 성장하고 있습니다. [17] 기독교인들은 특히 중동,북아프리카, 동아시아 및 남아시아에서 전 세계 일부 지역에서 박해를 받고 있습니다. [18][19]

내용을

어원학

초기 유대인 그리스도인들은 자신을 '길'(τῆς ὁδοῦ)이라고 부르며, 아마도 이사야 40장 3절에서"주님의 길을 준비하라"고 말했습니다. [20][참고 1] 사도행전 11:26에따르면, "기독교"(그리스어 : 안디옥시에서예수 제자들을 언급하여 먼저 사용되었습니다. [26] 용어 "기독교"(그리스어: θîαθ)의 초기 기록 된 사용은 안디옥의 이그나티우스에의해, 약 100 AD에 의해이었다.[27]

신조

전 세계 그리스도인들은 기본적인 확신을 공유하지만, 기독교가 기반을 두고 있는 성경과 성스러운 전통에 대한 해석과 의견의 차이도 있습니다. [28]

Creeds

 

콘스탄틴 황제와 니케아 제1평의회 의 아버지(325)가 니에노-콘스탄티노폴리탄 신조381을 들고 있는 모습을 묘사한 동부 기독교 아이콘.

주요 기사: 신조 § 기독교 신조,기독교 신조의 목록

  위키소스에는 이 문서와 관련된 원본 텍스트가 있습니다.

사도들의 신조

  위키소스에는 이 문서와 관련된 원본 텍스트가 있습니다.

니스 크리드

간결한 교리적 진술이나 종교적 신념의 고백은 신조로 알려져 있다. 그들은 침례식으로 시작했고, 4세기와 5세기의 그리스도학적 논쟁 중에 나중에 확장되어 신앙의 진술이 되었다.

사도들의 신조는 기독교 신앙의 기사중 가장 널리 받아들여지는 진술이다. 그것은 가톨릭 교회의 라틴 교회, 루터교, 성공회,서양 의식 정교회를 포함하여 서양 기독교 전통의 전례 교회에 의해 가장 눈에 띄게, 전례와 범주 적 목적을 위해 기독교 교단의 숫자에 의해 사용된다. 그것은 또한 장로교, 감리교, 그리고 수녀회주의자들에 의해 사용된다. 이 특별한 신조는 2세기와 9세기 사이에 개발되었다. 그 핵심 교리는 삼위일체와 창조주 하나님의 교리이다. 이 신조에서 발견되는 각 교리는 사도 시대에현재 진술로 추적될 수 있다. 신조는 로마 교회에서 침례 후보자들을 위한 기독교 교리의 요약으로 사용된 것으로 보인다. [29] 그 포인트는 다음과 같습니다:

니젠 크리드(Nicene Creed)는 각각 325년과 381년 니카에아  콘스탄티노플 의회에서 아리안주의에대한 응답으로 공식화되었으며,431년에 에페서스 제1평의회가 크리스천돔의 보편적 신조로 비준했다. [32]

451년 샬케돈의 공의회에서 개발된 Chalcedon의정의, 즉 Chalcedon의 신조는 동양 정교회에의해 거부되었지만[33] 그리스도에게 "혼란스럽고, 변하지 않고, 불가피하고, 불가피하게, 불가피하게, 분리할 수 없는 두 가지 본성에서 인정되라고 가르쳤다": 하나의 신성하고 인간적이며, 그 두 가지 본성은 완벽하지 는 않지만, 완전하게 하나가 되어있다. 【35】

서양 교회에서 니네와 샬체도니아인과 같은 지위를 가진 것으로 받은 아타나시아 신조는이렇게 말합니다. 사람을 혼란스럽게 하거나 물질을나누지도 않습니다." [36]

대부분의 기독교인(가톨릭, 동부 정교회, 동양 정교회, 개신교 모두)는 신조의 사용을 받아 들이고, 위에서 언급 한 신조 중 적어도 하나를 구독. [37]

많은 복음주의 개신교인들은 신조의 일부 또는 전부에 동의하면서도 신념의 확실한 진술로 신조를 거부합니다. 대부분의 침례교인들은 신조를 사용하지 않는다 "서로에 대한 믿음의 구속력 있는 권위있는 고백을 확립하려 하지 않았다는 점에서" [38]:111 또한 신조를 거부하는 것은 기독교 교회 (그리스도의 제자), 캐나다복음주의기독교 교회, 그리스도의 교회와같은 회복 운동에뿌리를 두고 있는 집단이다. [39][40]:14-15[41]:123

예수

 

예수 다양한 묘사.

주요 기사: 기독교와 그리스도의 예수 (제목)

더 보기: 비교 신화에서 화신(기독교)과 예수

기독교의 핵심 교리는 하나님의 아들과 메시아(그리스도)로서 예수대한 믿음입니다. 그리스도인들은 예수 메시아로서 하나님에 의해 인류의 구원자로서 기름부음을 받았으며, 예수 오는 것이 구약전서의 메시아 예언의 성취였다고 믿는다. 메시아의 기독교 개념은 현대 유대인 개념과크게 다릅니다. 기독교의 핵심 신념은 예수 죽음과 부활에대한 믿음과 수용을 통해 죄많은 인간은 하나님과 화해할 수 있으며, 이로 써 구원과 영생의약속을 제공받을 수 있다는 것이다. [42]

그리스도인 역사의 초기 세기에 걸쳐 예수 본질에 대한 많은 신학적 논쟁이 있었지만, 일반적으로 그리스도인들은 예수 하나님이 육신화되고 "참된 하나님과 참된사람"(또는 완전히 신성하고 완전한 인간)이라고 믿습니다. 예수 완전히 인간이되어 필멸의 사람의 고통과 유혹을 겪었지만 죄를 지지않았다. 온전히 하나님으로서, 그는 다시 살아나셨습니다. 신약전서에따르면, 그는 죽은 자들로부터 일어났고, [43] 하늘로 올라가 아버지의 오른손에 앉았고,[44] 죽은 자의 부활,마지막 심판,그리고 하나님의 왕국의마지막 확립을 포함하여 메시아예언의나머지 부분을 성취하기 위해[행전 1:9-11]

마태와 누가의 정식 복음서에 따르면, 예수 성령에 의해 잉태되고 성물 마리아에게서 태어났다. 예수 어린 시절의 작은 표준 복음서에 기록, 비록 초기 복음 은 고대에 인기가 있었다. 이에 비해, 그의 성인기, 특히 죽기 일주일 전, 그의 삶의 일부가 가장 중요하다고 믿기 때문에 신약전서에포함된 복음서에 잘 기록되어 있습니다. 예수 성역에 대한 성경적 기록에는 침례, 기적,전파, 가르침, 행위 등이 있습니다.

죽음과 부활

주요 기사: 예수 십자가에 못 박히고 예수 부활

 

십자가에 못 박히면 십자가에 예수 죽음을 상징, 디에고 벨라스케스에의해 그림, c. 1632.

그리스도인들은 예수 부활을 신앙의 초석(고린도 15명참조)과 역사상 가장 중요한 사건이라고 생각합니다. [45] 기독교 신앙 가운데 예수 죽음과 부활은 기독교 교리와 신학의 상당 부분을 기초로 하는 두 가지 핵심 사건이다. [46] 신약전서에 따르면, 예수 십자가에 못 박혀,육체적 인 죽음을 죽였고, 무덤 안에 묻혔으며, 3 일 후에 죽은 자들로부터 일어났다. [Jn. 19:30-31] [Mk. 16:1] [16:6]

신약전서는 "한 번에 500명 이상의 형제들",[1Cor 15:6] 예수 하늘로 향하기 전에 [1Cor 15:6] 등 열두 사도들과 제자들에게여러 차례 예수 부활 후 모습을 언급한다. 예수 죽음과 부활은 성금요일과 부활절 일요일을포함하는 거룩한 주간동안 특별한 강조와 함께, 모든 예배예배에서 그리스도인에 의해 기념된다.

예수 죽음과 부활은 보통 기독교 신학에서가장 중요한 사건으로 간주되며, 이는 예수 삶과 죽음에 대한 권능을 가지고 있으며, 따라서 사람들에게 영생을줄 권세와 권능을 가지고 있음을 보여주기 때문이다. [47]

기독교 교회들은 예수 부활에 대한 신약의 기사를 받아들이고 가르치는 것은 극히 예외가 없다. [48] 일부 현대 학자들은 역사적 예수 연속성과 초기 교회의선포를 확립하기 위한 출발점으로 부활에 예수 추종자들의 믿음을 이용한다. [49] 일부 자유주의 그리스도인들은 문자 그대로의 육체적 부활을 받아들이지 않는다,[50][51] 풍부한 상징적이고 영적으로 영양 신화로이야기를 보고. 죽음과 부활 주장에 대한 논쟁은 많은 종교적 논쟁과 종교 간 대화에서 발생합니다. [52] 초기 그리스도인 개종자이자 선교사인 사도 바울은이렇게 썼습니다. [1Cor 15:14][53]

구원

주요 기사: 기독교의 구원

 

장로 루카스 크라나흐의 율법과 복음); 모세와 엘리야는 죄인을 구원을 위해 예수 가리킨다.

바울 사도는당시 유대인들과 로마 이교도들처럼 희생이 새로운 친족 관계, 순수함, 영생을 가져올 수 있다고 믿었다. [54] 바울에게 필요한 희생은 예수 죽음이었으며, "그리스도의" 이방인은 이스라엘과 마찬가지로 아브라함의 후손이며 "약속에 따른 상속자"입니다. [갈3:29][55] 죽은 자가운데서 예수 키신 하나님은 또한 이스라엘과 함께 " 하나님의 자녀들"인 이방인 그리스도인들의 "필멸의 육신"에게 새로운 생명을 주실 것이며, 따라서 더 이상 "육체로" 되지 않았다. [롬 8:9,11,16][54]

현대 기독교 교회는 유대인과 이방인이 하나님의 가족에 어떻게 있을 수 있는지에 대한 질문보다 인류가 죄와 죽음의 보편적인 조건에서 어떻게 구원받을 수 있는지에 훨씬 더 관심을 가지는 경향이 있습니다. 동부 정교회 신학에 따르면, 이레나우스의 회상 이론에의해 제시 된 속죄에 대한 이해에 따라, 예수 죽음은 몸값이다. 이것은 사랑이 많고 인류에게 다가가는 하나님과의 관계를 회복시키고, 신의 신성화가능성을 제공하여 하나님께서 인류가 되기를 바라는 인간이 된다. 가톨릭 교리에 따르면, 예수 죽음은 인간의 죄로 인한 하나님의 명예에 대한 범죄로 인해 자극된 하나님의 진노를 기리는 다. 가톨릭 교회는 그리스도인의 충실함 없이는 구원이 일어나지 않는다고 가르친다. 개종자는 사랑의 원리에 따라 살아야 하며 일반적으로 침례를 받아야 한다. [56] 개신교 신학에서 예수 죽음은 하나님의 도덕적 율법을 어겼을 때 인류가 지불해야 할 부채에 대해 예수 의해 수행되는 대체 처벌로 간주됩니다. 마틴 루터는 세례가 구원에 필요하다고 가르쳤지만, 현대 루터교와 다른 개신교들은 구원이 하나님의 은혜로개인에게 오는 선물이며 때로는 침례와는 별개로 "무익한 호의"로 정의된 것을 가르치는 경향이 있다. 인용 필요

그리스도인들은 개인의 구원이 하나님에 의해 미리 정성되는 정도에 대한 견해가 다릅니다. 개혁된 신학은 개인이 완전히 자기 구속할 수 없다는것을 가르쳐 주면서도, 그 성스러운 은혜는 저항할 수 없다는것을 가르쳐 은혜에 중점을 둡히 한다. [57] 반대로 가톨릭신자,정교회 기독교인, 아르미니아 개신교인들은 자유 의지의 행사가 예수 대한 믿음을 갖기 위해 필요하다고 믿는다. [58]

트리니티

본문: 트리니티

 

The Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.[59]

삼위일체는 하나님[60]이 세 가지 뚜렷하고 영원히 공존하는 사람, 즉 아버지, 아들(예수 그리스도의 육신화), 성령을포함한다는 가르침을 말한다. 이 세 사람은 함께 하나님머리라고도불리며,[61][62][63]는 통일된 신머리를 나타내기 위해 성경에서 사용할 수 있는 단 하나의 용어가 없다. [64] 에타나시아 신조의말씀에서, 기독교 신앙의 초기 진술, "아버지는 하나님이시며, 아들은 하나님이시며, 성령은 하나님이시며, 아직 세 신이 아니라 하나의 하나님이 있다". [65] 그들은 다른 것과 구별된다: 아버지는 근원이 없고, 아들은 아버지로부터 오셨으며, 영은 아버지로부터 행해지다. 구별되지만, 세 사람은 존재하거나 운영중인 서로 나눌 수 없습니다. 일부 그리스도인들은 하나님이 구약전서에서아버지로 나타나셨다고 믿지만, 그가 신약전서에아들로 나타났으며, 여전히 현재의 성령으로 나타나기로 동의한다. 그러나 여전히 하나님은 이 시대에 세 사람으로 존재하셨습니다. [66] 그러나, 전통적으로 삼위일체가 예술로 묘사될때, 아들은 일반적으로 독특한 외모, 그리스도를 식별하는 십자가형 후광, 그리고 에덴 동산의묘사를 가지고 있기 때문에 구약에 나타난 아들이라는 믿음이 있다. 초기 기독교 석관에서 로고는 수염으로 구별된다, "이는 그가 고대, 심지어 존재도 표시 할 수 있습니다." [67]

The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated[68] the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.[69][70]

According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each eternal and omnipotent. Other Christian religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share those views on the Trinity.

The Greek word trias[71][note 2] is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".[75] The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,[note 2] trinitas,[73] appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian.[76][77] In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.[78]

Trinitarians

Main article: Trinitarianism

Trinitarianism denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons.[79]

Nontrinitarianism

Main article: Nontrinitarianism

Nontrinitarianism (or antitrinitarianism) refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[80] Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the Gnosticism of the Cathars between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with Unitarian theology in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century,[81] in the 18th-century Enlightenment, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century.

Eschatology

Main article: Christian eschatology

 

The 7th-century Khor Virap monastery in the shadow of Mount Ararat; Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301.[82]

The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth.

Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[83][84]

Death and afterlife

Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics,[85][86] Orthodox[87][88] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death.

In the liturgical branches (e.g. Catholicism or Eastern or Oriental Orthodoxy), those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.[89] Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy").[90]

Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.[91]

Practices

Main articles: Christian worship and Church service

See also: Mass (liturgy), Reformed worship, and Contemporary worship

 

Midnight Mass at a Catholic parish church in Woodside, New York City, U.S.

 

Show on the life of Jesus at Igreja da Cidade in São José dos Campos, affiliated to the Brazilian Baptist Convention.

Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), prayer (including the Lord's Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services.[92]

Communal worship

Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy.[note 3] Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.[94]

Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.[note 4][95] Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.[92] Psalms, hymns, or worship songs may be sung.[96][97] Services can be varied for special events like significant feast days.[98]

Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and gave them wine saying, "This is my blood".[99] In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.[100] Some denominations such as Confessional Lutheran churches continue to practice 'closed communion'.[101] They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin.[102] Many other churches, such as Anglican Communion and United Church of Canada, practice 'open communion' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.[103][104]

Sacraments or ordinances

Main article: Sacrament

See also: Sacraments of the Catholic Church, Anglican sacraments, Lutheran sacraments, and Ordinance (Christianity)

2nd-century description of the Eucharist

And this food is called among us Eukharistia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.

Justin Martyr[94]

In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.[105]

The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: Confirmation (Chrismation in the Eastern tradition), Holy Orders (or ordination), Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony (see Christian views on marriage).[105]

Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognized by churches in the High Church tradition—notably Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, many Anglicans, and some Lutherans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.[105] Evangelical churches adhering to the doctrine of the believers' Church mostly use the term "ordinances" to refer to baptism and communion.[106]

In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross.[107]

 

 

 

 

 

  • Service of the Sacrament of Holy Unction served on Great and Holy Wednesday

Liturgical calendar

Main article: Liturgical year

See also: Calendar of saints

Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the liturgical year.[108] The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of seasons, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of paraments and vestments for clergy,[109] scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.

Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church,[109] and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective rites. Calendars set aside holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary, or the saints, and periods of fasting, such as Lent and other pious events such as memoria, or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations such as Quaker Christians make no use of a liturgical calendar.[110]

Symbols

Main article: Christian symbolism

 

The cross and the fish are two common symbols of Jesus Christ; letters of the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ Ichthys (fish) form an acronym for "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", which translates into English as "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior".

Christianity has not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians and some modern denominations, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols.

The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.[111][112] Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.[113] Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.[114]

Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.[115] Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ichthys (fish) forming an acronym for the Greek phrase Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),[note 5] (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.[115]

Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.[114]

Baptism

Main article: Baptism

Infant baptism by effusion in a Catholic Church in Venezuela

Believer's baptism of adult by immersion, Northolt Park Baptist Church, in Greater London, Baptist Union of Great Britain

Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods are: by immersion; if immersion is total, by submersion; by affusion (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of infant baptism;[116] the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[117][118] The Catholic Church also practices infant baptism,[119] usually by affusion, and utilizing the Trinitarian formula.[120]

Evangelical denominations adhering to the doctrine of the believers' Church, practice the believer's baptism, by immersion in water, after the new birth and a profession of faith.[121][122] For newborns, there is a ceremony called child dedication.[123]

Prayer

Main article: Prayer in Christianity

Further information: Canonical hours

"... ‘Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.’"

— The Lord’s Prayer, Matthew 6:9–13, EHV[124]

In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer.[125] The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the Didache and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.[126][127]

In the second century Apostolic Tradition, Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray at seven fixed prayer times: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."[128] Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and prostrations have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church.[129] Breviaries such as the Shehimo and Agpeya are used by Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer.[130][131]

The Apostolic Tradition directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.[132]

Intercessory prayer is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons[Acts 9:40] and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people.[1Ki 17:19–22] In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah.[Jam 5:16–18] The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.[133]

The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.[134] The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous.[135]

According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God."[136] The Book of Common Prayer in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.[137] Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony. At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.

Scriptures

Main articles: Bible, Biblical canon, Development of the Christian biblical canon, and Religious text

 

The Bible is the sacred book in Christianity.

Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16 is theopneustos, which literally means "God-breathed".[138]

Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles inerrant. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version.[139][140][141] Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.

The books of the Bible accepted by the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches vary somewhat, with Jews accepting only the Hebrew Bible as canonical; however, there is substantial overlap. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions, and of the councils that have convened on the subject. Every version of the Old Testament always includes the books of the Tanakh, the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic and Orthodox canons, in addition to the Tanakh, also include the deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament. These books appear in the Septuagint, but are regarded by Protestants to be apocryphal. However, they are considered to be important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.[142] The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.

Modern scholarship has raised many issues with the Bible. While the King James Version is held to by many because of its striking English prose, in fact it was translated from the Erasmus Greek Bible, which in turn "was based on a single 12th Century manuscript that is one of the worst manuscripts we have available to us".[143] Much scholarship in the past several hundred years has gone into comparing different manuscripts in order to reconstruct the original text. Another issue is that several books are considered to be forgeries. The injunction that women "be silent and submissive" in 1 Timothy 2[144] is thought by many to be a forgery by a follower of Paul, a similar phrase in 1 Corinthians 14,[145] which is thought to be by Paul, appears in different places in different manuscripts and is thought to originally be a margin note by a copyist.[143] Other verses in 1 Corinthians, such as 1 Corinthians 11:2–16 where women are instructed to wear a covering over their hair "when they pray or prophesies",[146] contradict this verse.

A final issue with the Bible is the way in which books were selected for inclusion in the New Testament. Other gospels have now been recovered, such as those found near Nag Hammadi in 1945, and while some of these texts are quite different from what Christians have been used to, it should be understood that some of this newly recovered Gospel material is quite possibly contemporaneous with, or even earlier than, the New Testament Gospels. The core of the Gospel of Thomas, in particular, may date from as early as AD 50 (although some major scholars contest this early dating),[147] and if so would provide an insight into the earliest gospel texts that underlie the canonical Gospels, texts that are mentioned in Luke 1:1–2. The Gospel of Thomas contains much that is familiar from the canonical Gospels—verse 113, for example ("The Father's Kingdom is spread out upon the earth, but people do not see it"),[148] is reminiscent of Luke 17:20–21[149][150]—and the Gospel of John, with a terminology and approach that is suggestive of what was later termed Gnosticism, has recently been seen as a possible response to the Gospel of Thomas, a text that is commonly labeled proto-Gnostic. Scholarship, then, is currently exploring the relationship in the early church between mystical speculation and experience on the one hand and the search for church order on the other, by analyzing new-found texts, by subjecting canonical texts to further scrutiny, and by an examination of the passage of New Testament texts to canonical status.

Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church.[151]

Catholic interpretation

 

St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, the largest church in the world and a symbol of the Catholic Church.

Main article: Catholic theology of Scripture

In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[152]

Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.[153]

The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into:

Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:

  • The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal[154][155]
  • That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held[156]
  • That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"[157] and
  • That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome".[158]

Protestant interpretation

Five solae of theProtestant ReformationSola scripturaSola fideSola gratiaSolus ChristusSoli Deo gloria

Qualities of Scripture

Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as sola scriptura.[159] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".[160] He advocated for "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".[160] John Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".[161] Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.[162]

Original intended meaning of Scripture

Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method.[163] The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text.[164] This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.[165] The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture."[166] Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.[164] Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[167]

History

Main article: History of Christianity

Early Christianity

Apostolic Age

 

Chapel of Saint Ananias, Damascus, Syria, an early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD.[168]

 

초기 원형 ichthys 기호, 바퀴에 그리스 문자ΘÎΘΘ를 결합하여 만든, 에베소,아시아 마이너.

 

이라크북부 알파프 산 꼭대기에 위치한 성 마태의 수도원은현재 가장 오래된 기독교 수도원 중 하나로 인정받고 있습니다. [169]

 

카디샤 밸리, 레바논,세계에서 가장 초기 기독교 수도원의 일부 고향.

Main article: Christianity in the 1st century

Christianity developed during the 1st century CE as a Jewish Christian sect of Second Temple Judaism.[170][171] An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of the Lord, Peter, and John.[172]

Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook, which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commands. Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ, and participation in his death and resurrection, sufficed.[173] At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion.[174]

Ante-Nicene period

메인 기사: 앤티 니네 시대의 기독교

이 조형적인 시기는 그리스도인들이 그리스도의 사도들의 후계자를고려하는 초기 주교들로 뒤따랐다. 150년부터 기독교 교사들은 신앙을 수호하기 위한 신학적, 사과의 작품을 제작하기 시작했다. 이 저자들은 교회 아버지로알려져 있으며, 그 저자들에 대한 연구는 애국심이라고 불린다. 주목할만한 초기 아버지는 안디옥의 이그나티우스를포함, 폴리 카프, 저스틴 순교자, 이레나우스, 테르툴리안,알렉산드리아와 오리겐의 클레멘트.

기독교인에 대한 박해는 유대인과 로마 당국모두에의해 간헐적으로 그리고 작은 규모로 일어났으며, 로마의 행동은 64년에 로마대화재 때부터 시작되었으며, 유대인 권위하에서 조기 처형된 예로는 성 스티븐[행전 7:59]  세베대의 아들 제임스의죽음이 포함된다. [사도행전 12:2] 데시안 박해는 최초의 제국 전체 분쟁이었다,[175] 때 250 AD에서 데시우스의 칙령은 로마 제국의 모든 사람을 필요로 (유대인 제외) 로마 신들에게 희생을 수행할. 서기 303년부터 시작된 디오클레티아닉 박해도 특히 심각했다. 로마의 박해는 밀라노의 칙령과함께 313 년에 끝났다.

프로토 정통 기독교가 지배적이되었지만, 이테로독스 종파도 동시에 존재했으며, 이는 근본적으로 다른 믿음을 가지고 있었다. 지그만주의 기독교는 죄를 용서하기보다는 환상과 깨달음에 기초한 듀오신교 교리를 개발했다. 정통 정경이 발달하는 정경과 겹치는 경전이 몇 개뿐인 가운데, 대부분의 경건한 복음과 그노즈복음은 결국 주류 기독교인들이 이단적으로 간주되고 억압되었다. 이방인 기독교의 점진적분리로 인해 유대인 그리스도인들은 할례와 같은 관습을 포함하여 모세의 율법을계속 따랐다. 5세기에 는 유대교와 기독교 모두에서 지배적인 종파에 의해 유대인-기독교 복음서와 유대인-기독교 복음서가 크게 억압될 것이다.

로마 제국의 확산과 수용

 

중동에서 아프리카와 유럽으로 확산 된 후 A.D. 600에 의해 그리스도교.

 

콘스탄티노플의 하기아 소피아의 데에시스 모자이크(Deësis) 모자이크( Deësis) 모자이크의 예.

더 보기: 테살로니키의 칙령

기독교는 지중해 연안을 따라 아람어로퍼졌고, 로마 제국의 내륙 지역과 그 너머에 파르티안 제국과 메소포타미아를포함한 후기 사산 제국으로퍼졌는데, 이 제국은 서로 다른 시대에 지배되었고 이 제국에 의해 다양한 범위에서 지배되었다. [176] 아프리카에서 기독교의 존재는 이집트에서 1 세기 중반과 카르타고주변 지역에서 2 세기 말에 시작되었다. 전도자 마크는 알렉산드리아 의 교회를 시작 했다고 주장 43 CE; 알렉산드리아의 콥트 정교회를포함하여 다양한 후기 교회는 자신의 유산으로 이것을 주장한다. [177][178][179] 기독교의 초기 발전에 영향을 미친 중요한 아프리카인은 테르툴리안, 알렉산드리아의 클레멘트, 알렉산드리아의 오리겐, 키프로스, 아타나시우스,그리고 하마의 어거스틴을포함한다.

티리다스 III 왕은 기독교를 아르메니아에서 301에서 314 사이, [82][180] [181]따라서 아르메니아는 최초의 공식적으로 기독교 국가가되었다. 적어도 3세기부터 아르메니아에 침투한 것은 완전히 새로운 종교가 아니었지만, 더 일찍 존재했을 지도 모른다. [182]

콘스탄틴 나는 어린 시절에 기독교에 노출되었고, 평생 종교에 대한 그의 지지가 커지면서 그의 죽음에 대한 침례가 절정에 이르렀다. [183] 그의 통치 기간 동안, 기독교인에 대한 국가 제재 박해는 311년 관용의 칙령과 313년 밀라노의 칙령으로 끝났다. 그 시점에서, 기독교는 여전히 소수 신념이었다, 아마도 로마 인구의 5 %를 구성. [184] 콘스탄틴의 조카 줄리안인 그의 고문 마도니우스의영향을 받아 기독교를 억압하려 하지 못했다. [185] 2월 27일, 테오도시우스 I, 그라티안, 발렌티니안 II는 로마 제국의 국가 교회로 니스네 기독교를 설립했다. [186] 국가와 연결되자마자 기독교는 부유해졌다. 교회는 부자들에게 기부를 요청했고, 이제 는 땅을 소유할 수 있었다. [187]

콘스탄틴은 또한 325년 니카에아 제1평의회를 소집하는 데 중요한 역할을 했으며, 이는 가톨릭, 동부 정교회, 루터교, 성공회,그리고 다른 많은 개신교 교회에서 여전히 사용되고 있는 니신 신조를공식화했다. [188][37] 니케아는 교회 신학의 중요한 요소, 특히 그리스도교에관한 중요한 요소를 공식적으로 정의한 일련의 에큐메니칼 평의회중 첫 번째였다. [189] 동교회는 세 번째와 다음 에큐메니칼 평의회를 받아들이지 않았으며, 오늘날에도 그후계자(동부의 아시리아 교회)에의해 분리되어 있다.

번영과 문화 생활의 관점에서, 비잔틴 제국은 기독교 역사와 기독교 문명의봉우리 중 하나였다,[190] 콘스탄티노플은 크기, 부, 문화기독교 세계의 선도적 인 도시 남아 있었다. [191] 고전 그리스 철학에 대한 새로운 관심과언어 그리스어의 문학 출력의 증가가 있었다. [192] 비잔틴 미술과 문학은 유럽에서 가장 중요한 자리를 차지했으며, 이 기간 동안 비잔틴 예술이 서양에 미치는 문화적 영향은 엄청나고 오래 지속되는 의미였습니다. [193] 북아프리카에서 이슬람의 증가는 기독교 회중의 크기와 수를 감소, 이집트콥트 교회, 아프리카의 뿔에 있는 에티오피아 정교회 테와헤도 교회와 수단의 누비아 교회 (노바티아, 마쿠리아와 알라디아)만 떠나.

초기 중세 시대

서구에서 로마 제국의쇠퇴와 몰락으로 교황은 정치적 플레이어가 되었고, 교황 레오가 훈스와 반달스와의외교적 거래에서 처음으로 눈에 띄게 되었다. [194] 교회는 또한 여러 부족들 사이에서 오랜 기간 선교 활동과 확장에 들어갔다. 아리아나주의자들은 이교도를 실천한 것에 대한 사형을 제정했지만(예를 들어, 베르덴 대학살참조), 나중에 가톨릭이 될 것은 헝가리인, 게르만,[194] 켈트족, 발트해 및 일부 슬라브 족들사이에서 도퍼졌다.

약 500, 세인트 베네딕트는 자신의 수도원 규칙을설정, 수도원의 기초와 실행에 대한 규정의시스템을 설립. [194] 수도원은 유럽 전역에 걸쳐 강력한 힘이되었다,[194] 그리고 9 세기의 캐롤링 시대 르네상스에 기여, 아일랜드, 스코틀랜드, 골에서가장 유명한 학습의 많은 초기 센터를 초래했다.

7세기에 이슬람교도들은 시리아(예루살렘 포함), 북아프리카, 스페인을 정복하고 기독교 인구의 일부를 이슬람으로개종시키고 나머지는 별도의 법적 지위하에두었다. 이슬람교도의 성공의 일부는 페르시아와의수십 년 긴 충돌에서 비잔틴 제국의 피로 에 기인했다. [195] 캐롤링지아 지도자들의 등장과 함께 8세기부터 교황은 프랭키 왕국에서더 큰 정치적 지지를 추구했다. [196]

중세 시대는 교회 내에서 큰 변화를 가져왔다. 교황 그레고리 대왕은 극적으로 교회 구조와 행정을 개혁. [197] 8세기 초, 비잔틴 황제의 후원을 받았을 때, 아이코노클라즘은 분열적인 문제가 되었다. 니카에아의 제2에큐메니칼 위원회 (787)는 마침내 아이콘에 찬성 발음. [198] 10세기 초, 서양 기독교 수도원은 클루니의위대한 베네딕트 수도원의 지도력을 통해 더욱 활기를 되찾게 되었다. [199]

중세 후기

 

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade.

서쪽에서, 11 세기 부터, 일부 오래된 성당 학교는 대학이되었다 (예를 들어, 옥스포드 대학, 파리 대학과 볼로냐 대학). 이전에는 고등 교육이 기독교 성당 학교  수도원 학교 (Scholae 수도원)의영역이었다, 승려와 수녀에의해 주도. 이러한 학교의 증거는 6 세기 CE로 거슬러 올라갑니다. [200] 이 새로운 대학은 성직자, 변호사, 공무원 및 의사를위한 학술 프로그램을 포함하도록 커리큘럼을 확장했습니다. [201] 대학은 일반적으로 중세 기독교 환경에서 기원을 가지고 기관으로 간주됩니다. [202][203][204]

유럽 전역에 걸쳐 "새로운 마을"의 상승과 함께, mendicant 명령이 설립되었다, 수도원에서 새로운 도시 설정으로 성별 종교 생활을 가져. 두 가지 주요 멘디언스 운동은 각각 세인트 프랜시스와 세인트 도미닉에의해 설립 된 프란시스칸[205]와 도미니카 공화국이었다. 두 명령 모두 유럽의 위대한 대학의 발전에 상당한 기여를했다. 또 다른 새로운 명령은 시스터시안이었는데,그의 큰 고립된 수도원은 이전의 광야 지역의 정착을 주도했다. 이 시기에 교회 건물과 교회 건축은 새로운 높이에 도달하여 로마네스크양식과 고딕 양식의 건축물과 위대한 유럽 대성당 의 건축에 절정을 이루었습니다. [207]

Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the impulse to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.[208] From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched.[209] These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.[210]

The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the so-called Latin or Western Christian branch (the Catholic Church),[211] and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy.[212][213] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches.

In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe.[214][215]

Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy,[216] various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution.[217]

Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

 

Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses in 1517.

Main articles: Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

See also: European wars of religion and Renaissance Papacy

The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses 1517 against the sale of indulgences.[218] Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches.[219]

Other reformers like Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices.[218] The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved.[220]

Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations.

 

Michelangelo's 1498–99 Pietà in St. Peter's Basilica; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the Renaissance.[221][222][223]

Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform.[224] The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.[225]

Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. Lutheranism spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, Livonia, and Scandinavia. Anglicanism was established in England in 1534. Calvinism and its varieties, such as Presbyterianism, were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. Arminianism gained followers in the Netherlands and Frisia. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.[226]

In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of Renaissance art.[227] Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.[227] Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution,[228][229][230][231][232] Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus,[233] Galileo Galilei,[234] Johannes Kepler,[235] Isaac Newton[236] and Robert Boyle.[237]

Post-Enlightenment

 

A depiction of Madonna and Child in a 19th-century Kakure Kirishitan Japanese woodcut.

In the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies, such as versions of socialism and liberalism.[238] Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution,[239] the Spanish Civil War, and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism.[240][241][242][243]

Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.[244]

The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent,[245] often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the Kulturkampf,[246] where liberals and Protestants under the leadership of Bismarck managed to severely restrict Catholic expression and organization.

Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,[247] particularly in Czechia and Estonia,[248] while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general,[249][250] with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians,[251] most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.

Demographics

Main articles: Christianity by country and Christian population growth

See also: Christendom and Christian state

With around 2.4 billion adherents,[252][253] split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[254] The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on Earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America.[255] According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, within the next four decades, Christians will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.[256]:60

 

A Christian procession in Brazil, the country with the largest Catholic population in the world.[254]

 

Trinity Sunday in Russia; the Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the fall of communism.[257]

According to some scholars, Christianity rank at first place in net gains through religious conversion.[258][259] As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.[260][261][262] The so-called popular Protestantism[note 6] is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.[263][264] Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.[265] Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics.[266] And if in 2018, the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow, as will other religious groups.[267] According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1 billion African Christians by 2050.[256]

In 2010, 87% of world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the majority, while 13% of world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the minority.[16] Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Southern Africa.[16] In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, East Timor, and the Philippines.[268] However, it is declining in some areas including the Northern and Western United States,[269] some areas in Oceania (Australia[270] and New Zealand[271]), northern Europe (including Great Britain,[272] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration,[273][274][275] and Macau[276]).

The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the Southern United States,[277] and the province of Alberta, Canada,[278] but the percentage is decreasing. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been stable or even increased in the Central and Eastern European countries.[279] Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentage in China,[280][254] other Asian countries,[254][281] Sub-Saharan Africa,[254][282] Latin America,[254] Eastern Europe,[279][257] North Africa (Maghreb),[283][282] Gulf Cooperation Council countries,[254] and Oceania.[282]

Despite the declining numbers, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western World, where 70% are Christians.[16] Christianity remains the largest religion in Western Europe, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018.[284] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians.[16][285][286][287] By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities.[254]

However, there are many charismatic movements that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia.[288][289][290][291][292] Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.[293] From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelical Protestants grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.[294] According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey from the University of Melbourne, since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the Evangelical and Pentecostal forms.[295] A study conducted by St. Mary's University estimated about 10.2 million Muslim converts to Christianity in 2015,[283] according to the study significant numbers of Muslims converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan,[283][296] Azerbaijan,[283][296] Central Asia (including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other countries),[283][296] Indonesia,[283][296] Malaysia,[283][296] the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey,[297] and other countries),[283][296] North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco,[298][299] and Tunisia[300]),[283][296] Sub-Saharan Africa,[283][296] and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United kingdom, the United States, and other western countries).[283][296] It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Aisa, according to a report by the Singapore Management University, more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them are young and have a university degree.[281] According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam there is a "rapid expansion" of Christianity in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea.[281] According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore,[301] Indonesia, Japan,[302] Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea,[16] and Vietnam.[303]

In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.[304] Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,[305] while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.[306] Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.[307] According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more,[308] Conversely about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians; according to the World Values Survey, about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly.[308]

Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic),[309] Tuvalu (Reformed), Tonga (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran),[310][311][312] Costa Rica (Catholic),[313] the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran),[314] England (Anglican),[315] Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),[316] Greece (Greek Orthodox),[317] Iceland (Lutheran),[318] Liechtenstein (Catholic),[319] Malta (Catholic),[320] Monaco (Catholic),[321] and Vatican City (Catholic).[322]

There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination.[323]

Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2011 data)[324]TraditionFollowers% of the Christian population% of the world populationFollower dynamicsDynamics in- and outside ChristianityChristianity2,382,750,00010031.7

 Growing

 Stable

Catholic Church 1,329,610,000 50.1 15.9  Growing  Growing
Protestantism 900,640,000 36.7 11.6  Growing  Growing
Orthodoxy 260,380,000 11.9 3.8  Growing  Declining
Other Christianity 28,430,000 1.3 0.4  Growing  Growing

Christians (self-described) by region(Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[325][326][327]RegionChristians% ChristianWorld2,173,180,00031.5

Europe 558,260,000 75.2
Latin AmericaCaribbean 531,280,000 90.0
Sub-Saharan Africa 517,340,000 62.9
Asia Pacific 286,950,000 7.1
North America 266,630,000 77.4
Middle EastNorth Africa 12,710,000 3.7

Regional median ages of Christians compared with overall median ages (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[328]Christian median age in region (years)Regional median age (years)

World 30 29
Sub-Saharan Africa 19 18
Latin America-Caribbean 27 27
Asia-Pacific 28 29
Middle East-North Africa 29 24
North America 39 37
Europe 42 40

 

 

The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.[329]

 

    • Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink

 

 

    • Distribution of Catholics

 

    • Distribution of Protestants

 

    • Distribution of Eastern Orthodox

 

    • Distribution of Oriental Orthodox

 

  • Distribution of other Christians

Churches and denominations

Further information: List of Christian denominations, List of Christian denominations by number of members, and List of schisms in Christianity

See also: Ecclesiology

The four primary divisions of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Protestantism.[41]:14[330] A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, which has its origins in the East–West Schism (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western or Eastern World Christianity has also stood out, for example, African-initiated churches. However, there are other present[331] and historical[332] Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.

There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations.[333] The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant (including Anglican) denominations.[334]

Major denominational families in Christianity:

This box: 

Western Christianity

Eastern Christianity

Protestantism

Evangelicalism

Anabaptism

Anglicanism

Calvinism

Lutheranism

(Latin Church)

Catholic Church

(Eastern Catholic Churches)

Eastern Orthodox Church

Oriental Orthodox Churches

Church of the East

Nestorianism

Schism (1552)

Assyrian Church of the East

Ancient Church of the East

Protestant Reformation

(16th century)

Great Schism

(11th century)

Council of Ephesus (431)

Council of Chalcedon (451)

Early Christianity

State church of the
Roman Empire

"Great Church"

(Full communion)

(Not shown are non-Nicene, nontrinitarian, and some restorationist denominations.)

Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic Church

 

Pope Francis, the current leader of the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church consists of those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance.[335][336] Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.[337][338] Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities[339][340] and works towards reconciliation among all Christians.[339] The Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[341][342]

Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass.[343] The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions.[344] Its teaching includes Divine Mercy, sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasises voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates thousands of Catholic schools, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.[345] Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations.

As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution,[346] it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization.[347] The 2,834 sees[348] are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments.[349] With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1%[16] all Christians as well as one sixth of the world's population.[350][351][352] Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Main article: Eastern Orthodox Church

 

이스탄불의 성 조지 대성당 : 그것은 그의 지도자가 동부 정교회의 원시 중간 pares로 간주됩니다 콘스탄티노플의 에큐메니칼 축복사의 자리되었습니다. [353]

The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.[354] Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.

동방 정교회 신학은 일곱 에큐메니칼 평의회,성경, 교회 아버지의 가르침의 독단적 법령을 통합하는 거룩한 전통에 기초한다. 교회는 그리스도께서 위대한 위원회에서 그리스도를 예수 세워진 거룩하고 가톨릭과 사도교회이며, 그 주교들이 그리스도의 사도들의 후계자라고 가르친다. [356] 그것은 거룩한 전통에 의해 계승된 원래 기독교 신앙을 실천한다고 주장한다. 펜타키를연상시키는 가부장제와다른 자치교회와 자치교회는 다양한 계층 구조를 반영한다. 그것은 성체가 신디사이저에서 전례적으로 축하 의 주요 하나인 일곱 가지 주요 성찬을 인식합니다. 교회는 제사장이 부임한 헌납을 통해 희생빵과 포도주는 그리스도의 몸과 피가 된다고 가르친다. 성모 마리아는 동방 정교회에서 하나님을 낳는 자로 존경하며, 헌신에 경의를 표한다.

교리와 권세의 질문을 통해 서양 기독교와의 갈등은 위대한 분열에서절정에 이르렀다. 동부 정교회는 기독교에서 두 번째로 큰 단일 교단으로, 약 2억 3천만 명의 지지자가 있지만, 개신교는 이들을 크게 능가합니다. [16][14][357] 세계에서 가장 오래된 생존 종교 기관 중 하나로서, 동방 정교회는 동부와 남동부 유럽, 코카서스, 근동의역사와 문화에서 중요한 역할을 했다. 【358】

동양 정교회

본문: 동양 정통

 

에티오피아 정교회의 자리인 아디스 아바바의 거룩한 삼위일체 성당.

동양 정교회("올드 오리엔탈" 교회라고도 함)는니케아, 콘스탄티노플, 에페서스등 처음 세 개의 에큐메니칼 평의회를 인정하는 동부 교회이지만, 샬케던 위원회의 독단적 정의를 거부하고 대신 미아피사이트 그리스도학을지지한다.

동양 정교회 친교는 시리아 정교회, 콥트 정교회,에티오피아 정교회, 에리트레아 정교회, 말카라 정교회(인도), 아르메니아 사도 교회 등 6개 그룹으로 구성된다. [359] 이 여섯 교회는 서로 친교하는 동안, 계층적으로 완전히 독립적이다. [360] 이 교회들은 일반적으로 동방정교회와친교되어 있지 않으며, 그들은 친교를 세우기 위해 대화를 나누고 있다. [361] 그리고 함께 전 세계적으로 약 6,200만 명의 회원을 보유하고 있습니다. [362][363][364]

세계에서 가장 오래된 종교 기관 중 일부로, 동양 정교회는 아르메니아, 이집트, 터키, 에리트레아, 에티오피아, 수단과 중동과 인도의일부의 역사와 문화에서 중요한 역할을했다. [365] [366]독재 교회의동부 기독교 단체, 그 주교는 주교성 성임의미덕에 의해 동일하며, 그 교리는 교회가 처음 세 에큐메니칼 평의회의 타당성을인식한다는 점에서 요약 될 수있다. 【367】

동부의 아시리아 교회

본문: 동부 아시리아 교회

 

터키 남동부 하카리의 제라몬아시리아 마을에 있는 6세기 네스토리안 교회인 성 요한 아랍교회.

17세기에 세워진 부서지지 않은 가부장제와 함께 동양의 아시리아 교회는 16세기에세워진 가톨릭 가부장제와 병행하여 교황과 완전한 친교를 맺은 동부 가톨릭 교회인 칼데아 가톨릭 교회와병행하는 독립적인 동기독교 교단이다. 그것은 동쪽의 역사적인 교회의 전통적인 그리스도와 풍교학을 따르는 동부 기독교 교회입니다. 다른 교회와 친교하지 않고, 시리아 기독교의동부 지부에 속하며, 동시리아 의식을 전례에사용합니다. 【368】

주요 언어는 동부 아라마닉의방언인 시리아인이며,그 지지자의 대부분은 민족 아시리아인이다. 그것은 공식적으로 북부 이라크 쿠르디스탄의 에르빌 시에 본사를 두고 있으며, 원래 지역은 고대 아시리아에해당하는 터키 남동부와 이란 북서부로 확산된다. 그 계층 구조는 대도시 주교와 교구 주교로구성되어 있으며, 낮은 성직자는 중동, 인도, 북미, 오세아니아 및 유럽 (코카서스와 러시아 포함)에 걸쳐 교구 (임시) 및 본당에서 봉사하는 사제와 집사로구성되어 있습니다. 【369】

동대교회는 1964년 동부아시리아 교회와 차별화되었다. 메소포타미아에서 가장 오래된 기독교 교회 중 하나인 동교회셀레치아-Ctesiphon의역사적 축복사와 연속성을 주장하는 아시리아 교회 중 하나입니다. 【370】

신교

주요 기사: 개신교와 프로토 개신교

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신교

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 기독교 포털

1521년, 벌레의 칙령은 마틴 루터를 비난하고 공식적으로 신성 로마 제국의 시민들이 자신의 사상을 방어하거나 전파하는 것을 금지했다. [371] 로마 가톨릭 교회 내에서 이 분열은 이제 종교 개혁이라고합니다. 저명한 개혁가로는 마틴 루터, 헐드리흐 징글리, 존 캘빈등이포함되었습니다. 파문당에 반대하는 스페이어의 1529년 시위는 이 당에 개신교라는이름을 주었다. 루터의 주요 신학적 상속인은 루터란으로알려져 있습니다. Zwingli와 캘빈의 상속인은 교파적으로 훨씬 더 광범위하며 개혁전통이라고합니다. [372] 개신교인들은 교육, 인문학과 과학, 정치 및 사회 질서, 경제 및 예술 및 기타 많은 분야에서 큰 공헌을 하면서 자신만의 문화를발전시켰습니다. [373]

성공회 교회는 영국 교회에서 후손과 성공회 친교에서조직. 일부 성공회는 개신교와 가톨릭 모두를 고려하지는 않습니다. [374][375]

성공회, 루터교, 개신교개혁지부가 정부와 의연한 협력을 위해 대부분 시작된 이래, 이러한 운동은'심판개혁'이라고불려있다. 반면에, 종종 자신을 개신교로 간주하지 않는 아나침례교와같은 단체들은 급진적 종교 개혁에서유래했는데, 이는 때로는 관용의 행위로보호되지만 그들의 역사를 어떤 주 교회로 거슬러 올라간다. 그(것)들은 유아 침례의 그들의 거절에 의해 더 구별됩니다; 그들은 성인 신자들의 침례만 을 믿는다—크레도세례주의(아나침례교에는 아미시, 사도, 메노나이트, 후터족, 슈워제나우 형제/독일 침례단체 포함). [376][377][378]

개신교라는 용어는 또한 나중에 형성된 모든 교회를 가리키며, 교도관이나 급진적 전통이 있습니다. 예를 들어, 18세기에 감리교는 성공회 장관 존 웨슬리의복음주의및 부흥 운동에서성장했다. [379] 성령의정화권을 강조하는 여러 오순절교회와 비종파교회들이감리교에서 나왔다. [380] 감리교, 오순절 및 기타 복음주의자들이 "예수 개인 주님과 구주로 받아들이라"고 강조하기 때문에,[381] 웨슬리가 새 탄생을강조한 것에서 비롯된[382] 그들은 종종 자신을 다시 태어난것으로 지칭한다. [383][384]

개신교는 가톨릭 이후 두 번째로 큰 기독교인 집단으로, 동방 정교회는 어떤 단일 개신교 교단보다 더 크다. [351] 추정은 주로 개신교로 분류하는 교단의 질문에 따라 다양합니다. 그러나 개신교 기독교인의 총 수는 일반적으로 8억에서 10억 사이로 추정되며, 이는 전 세계 기독교인의 약 40%에 해당합니다. [14][260][385] [386]개신교의 대부분은 교파 가족의 단지 소수의 구성원입니다, 즉, 재림교인, 성공회, 침례교, 개혁 (칼빈스트),[387] 루터교, 감리교,그리고 오순절. [260] 비종파, 복음주의, 카리스마, 신카리스마,독립, 그리고 다른 교회들이 증가하고 있으며, 개신교 기독교의 중요한 부분을 구성한다. [388]

기본 개신교 신조를 들고 개인의 일부 그룹은 단순히 "그리스도인"또는"태어난 다시 기독교인"으로 자신을 식별합니다. 그들은 일반적으로 자신을"비 종파"또는"복음주의"라고부르면서 다른 기독교 공동체[389]의 고백과 신조주의로부터 자신을 멀리합니다. 종종 개별 목사에 의해 설립, 그들은 역사적인 교단과 거의 제휴가 없습니다. 【390】

    • 교파 운동과 개신교 내의 다른 발전 사이의 링크

 

  • 주요 개신교 지부의 역사 차트

회복주의

본문: 복원주의

 

A 19th-century drawing of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery receiving the Aaronic priesthood from John the Baptist. Latter Day Saints believe that the Priesthood ceased to exist after the death of the Apostles and therefore needed to be restored.

1800년대 초 미국에서 일어난 종교적 부흥의 시기인 제2대 각성은관련없는 교회의 발전을 보았습니다. 그들은 일반적으로 자신들이 기존 교회 중 하나를 개혁하기보다는 예수 그리스도의 원래 교회를 복원하는 것으로 보았다. [391] 신복주의자들이 가진 공통된 믿음은 기독교의 다른 분열이 위대한 배도로알려진 기독교에 교리적 결함을 도입했다는 것이었다. [392] 아시아에서 이글레시아 니 크리스토는 1900년대 초에 설립된 복원종교로 알려져 있다.

Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[393] American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,[394][395] Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.[396]

Other

 

Unitarian Church of Transylvania in Cluj-Napoca.

Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania and United Kingdoom Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century;[397] the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example such a denomination that arose in this era.[398] They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism.[399]

Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church,[400] include the word Catholic in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church, but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See.[401]

Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobor and Molokan, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.[402][403]

Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.[404]

Esoteric Christians regard Christianity as a mystery religion,[405][406] and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices,[407][408] hidden from the public but accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.[409][410] Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the Rosicrucian Fellowship, the Anthroposophical Society, and Martinism.

Nondenominational Christianity or non-denominational Christianity consists of churches which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities[389] by not formally aligning with a specific Christian denomination.[411] Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, with followers organizing themselves simply as "Christians" and "Disciples of Christ",[note 7][411][412] but many typically adhere to evangelical Christianity.[413][414][415]

Influence on Western culture

Main articles: Christian culture and Role of Christianity in civilization

Further information: Protestant culture and Christian influences in Islam

Christian culture

Clockwise from top: Sistine chapel ceiling, Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox wedding, Christ the Redeemer statue, Nativity scene

Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.[416]

Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.[417] Until the Age of Enlightenment,[418] Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.[417][419] Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature, etc.

Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,[420] and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.[202] Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many Catholic clergy,[421] Jesuits in particular,[422][423] have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science.[424] Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.[425] The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,[426] founding hospitals,[427] economics (as the Protestant work ethic),[428][429][430] architecture,[431] politics,[432] literature,[433] personal hygiene (ablution),[434][435][436] and family life.[437][438]

Eastern Christians (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayad and the Abbasid, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic.[439][440][441] They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.[442][443][444]

Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields,[445] including philosophy,[446][447] science and technology,[448][449][450][451][452][453] medicine,[454] fine arts and architecture,[455] politics, literatures, music,[456] and business.[457] According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.[458]

Postchristianity[459] is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies.

Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion.[460]

Ecumenism

Main article: Ecumenism

 

The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.[461]

Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.[462][463] One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics.[462]

The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[464] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.[465]

The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.[461]

The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions.[466] The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".[466] The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.[467]

Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054;[468] the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;[469] and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.[470]

Criticism, persecution, and apologetics

Main articles: Criticism of Christianity, Persecution of Christians, and Christian apologetics

Criticism

 

A copy of the Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas, a famous Christian apologetic work.

Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g. Matthew 15:1–20 and Mark 7:1–23).[471] In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.[472] Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit to the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.[473][474] One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote The True Word, a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.[475][476][477] In response, the church father Origen published his treatise Contra Celsum, or Against Celsus, a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.[478][477]

By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.[479][480] The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume Adversus Christianos as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus.[481][482]

By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.[483] In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.[484] In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.[485]

Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.[486] New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in The Christ Myth Theory and its problems.[487]

Persecution

 

Christians fleeing their homes in the Ottoman Empire, circa 1922. Many Christians were persecuted and/or killed during the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide.[488]

Christians are one of the most persecuted religious group in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia.[489] In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution"[490] with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.[491][492] In 2019, a report[493][494] commissioned by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America,[clarification needed] among others,[495] and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.[494] This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.[19]

Apologetics

Christian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός apologētikos) comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι apologeomai, meaning "(I) speak in defense of".[496] Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work.[497][498] Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.[499][500] He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality.[501] The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his Questions of Truth, discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God.[502]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, Acts 9:2, Acts 19:9 and Acts 19:23). Some English translations of the New Testament capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated'[21] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way',[22] 'that way'[23] or 'the way of the Lord'.[24] The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".[25]
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b The Latin equivalent, from which English trinity is derived,[72][better source needed] is trinitas[73] though Latin also borrowed Greek trias verbatim.[74]
  3. ^ Frequently a distinction is made between "liturgical" and "non-liturgical" churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are described as "non-liturgical".[93]
  4. ^ Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
  5. ^ Iesous Christos Theou Hyios Soter would be a more complete transliteration; in Greek though, the daseia or spiritus asper was not—commonly—marked in the majusculescript of the time.
  6. ^ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.
  7. ^ The first Nondenominational Christian churches which emerged through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement are tied to associations such as the Churches of Christor the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[411][412]

References

    1. ^ Woodhead 2004, p. n.p
    2. ^ "World's largest religion by population is still Christianity". Countrymeters. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
    3. ^ The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. December 2012. "The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010." DC: Pew Research Center. Article.
    4. ^ S. T. Kimbrough, ed. (2005). Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-301-4.
    5. ^ Religions in Global Society. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006
    6. ^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
    7. ^ Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."
    8. ^ Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p. 111: three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
    9. ^ Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
    10. ^ Muslim-Christian Relations. Amsterdam University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-5356-938-2. Retrieved 18 October 2007. The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new converts. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the tole of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.
    11. ^ Fred Kammer (1 May 2004). Doing Faith Justice. Paulist Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8091-4227-9. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for pilgrims, orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern "large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large."
    12. ^ Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement. Chalice Press. March 1994. ISBN 978-0-8272-0463-8. Retrieved 18 October 2007. In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.
    13. ^ "Christian Traditions". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 19 December 2011. About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic (50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world's Christians.
    14. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050" (PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity.
    15. ^ Peter, Laurence (17 October 2018). "Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters". BBC. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
    16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
    17. ^ Pew Research Center
    18. ^ "Christian persecution 'at near genocide levels'". BBC News. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
    19. ^ Jump up to:a b Wintour, Patrick. "Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide' in Middle East – report". The Guardian. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
    20. ^ Larry Hurtado (17 August 2017 ), "Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle"
    21. ^ Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19, http://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
    22. ^ Jubilee Bible 2000
    23. ^ American King James Version
    24. ^ Douai-Rheims Bible
    25. ^ Gill, J., Gill's Exposition of the Bible, commentary on Acts 19:23 http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
    26. ^ E. Peterson (1959), "Christianus." In: Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis, publisher: Herder, Freiburg, pp. 353–72
    27. ^ Elwell & Comfort 2001, pp. 266, 828.
    28. ^ Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief.
    29. ^ Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition.
    30. ^ ""We Believe in One God....": The Nicene Creed and Mass". Catholics United for the Fath. February 2005. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
    31. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism".
    32. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Council of Ephesus".
    33. ^ Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon.
    34. ^ Peter Theodore Farrington (February 2006). "The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon". Glastonbury Review (113). Archived from the original on 19 June 2008.
    35. ^ Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
    36. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Athanasian Creed".
    37. ^ Jump up to:a b "Our Common Heritage as Christians". The United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
    38. ^ Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback
    39. ^ White, Howard A. The History of the Church.
    40. ^ 커민스, 듀안 D. (1991). 기독교 교회에서 오늘의 제자들을 위한 핸드북 (그리스도의 제자)(개정 된 에드). 세인트 루이스, 미주리: 성배 프레스. ISBN 978-0-8272-1425-5.
    41. ^ Jump up to:a B 론 로즈, 기독교 교단에 대한 완전한 가이드,수확 하우스 출판사, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4
    42. ^ 메츠거/쿠건, 옥스포드 성서 동반자,pp. 513, 649.
    43. ^ 사도2:24, 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34,13:37, 17:30-31, 로마인 10:9, 1 코르. 15:15, 6:14, 2 코르 4:14, 갈 1:1, Eph 1:20, 콜 2:12, 1 회 11:10, 13:20, 1 애완동물 1:3, 1:21
    44. ^ s:니스 크리드
    45. ^ 하네그라프. 부활: 기독교의 아치에 있는 캡스톤.
    46. ^ "그리스도인을 위한 예수 죽음과 부활의 중요성" 호주 가톨릭 대학 국립. 2007년 9월 1일 원본에서 보관. 2007년 5월 16일 검색.
    47. ^ 요한복음 5:24, 6:39-40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25-26, 17:3
    48. ^ 이것은 여러 출처, 특히 초기 신조, 가톨릭 교회의 교리,특정 신학적 작품, 그리고 영국 교회의 39 개 조항을포함하여 종교 개혁 기간 동안 초안 다양한 고백, 콩코드의 책에포함 된 작품에서 가져온다.
    49. ^ 풀러, 신약 전약 그리스도학의 기초,p. 11.
    50. ^ 예수 세미나 결론은 "세미나의 관점에서, 그는 죽은 자로부터 체상화되지 않았다; 부활은 베드로, 바울, 마리아의 선견지명이 있는 체험에 기반을 두고 있습니다."
    51. ^ 펑크. 예수 행위 : 예수 정말 무엇을했는가?.
    52. ^ 로렌젠. 부활, 제자, 정의: 오늘 그리스도께서 부활을 예수 확증,13쪽.
    53. ^ 볼/존슨 (에드.). 필수 예수.
    54. ^ Jump up to:a B 에이젠바움, 파멜라 (2004년 겨울). "여성에서 태어난 것에 대한 치료법: 로마인의 예수, 이방인, 계보"(PDF) . 성경 문학저널. 123 (4): 671-702. doi:10.2307/3268465. JSTOR 3268465. 2009년 4월 3일 검색.
    55. ^ 라이트, N.T. 세인트 폴 정말 말한: 타수스의 바울은 기독교의 진정한 설립자였습니까? (옥스포드, 1997), p. 121.
    56. ^ CCC 846; 바티칸 II, 루멘 겐티움 14
    57. ^ 웨스트 민스터 고백, 장 X 보관 28 5 월 2014 웨이 백 기계에서; 

      스푸전, 캘빈주의의 방어는 웨이백 머신에서2008년 4월 10일 보관.
    58. ^ "은혜와 정당화". 가톨릭 교회의 교리. 2010년 8월 15일에 원본에서 보관되었습니다.
    59. ^ 가톨릭 교회의 교리에서 인용 네 번째 라테란 위원회의 정의 §253.
    60. ^ 기독교의 일신신론적 지위는 다른 출처들 사이에서 가톨릭 백과사전(기사"일신교")에서확인된다. 윌리엄 F. 올브라이트, 석기 시대부터 기독교까지; H. 리처드 니부어;About.com, 일신교 자원; 커쉬, 신에 대항하는 하나님; 우드 헤드, 기독교에 대한 소개; 컬럼비아 전자 백과 사전 일신론; 문화 문해력의새로운 사전, 일신교; 신학의 새로운 사전, 바울,pp. 496-499; 메코니. "후기 고대의 이교도 일신교". pp. 111ff.
    61. ^ 켈리. 초기 기독교 교리. pp. 87-90.
    62. ^ 알렉산더. 성경 신학의 새로운 사전. pp. 514ff.
    63. ^ 맥그래스. 역사 신학. p. 61.
    64. ^ 메츠거/쿠건. 성경에 옥스포드 동반자. p. 782.
    65. ^ 켈리. 아타나시아 신조.
    66. ^ 옥스포드, "기독교의 백과사전, pg1207
    67. ^ 하이디 J. 호닉과 미칼 칼 파슨스, 기독교 예술 해석: 기독교 예술에 대한 반사,머서 대학 출판부, 2003, ISBN 0-86554-850-1,pp. 32-35.
    68. ^ 앤티 니친 문장의 예:

따라서 마법의 모든 힘이 용해되었다; 그리고 사악함의 모든 유대가 파괴되었고, 사람의 무지가 빼앗겨졌고, 옛 왕국은 영생의 쇄신을 위해 사람의 형태로 나타나신 하나님을 폐지했다.

 에페시아에게편지안디옥의 성 이그나티우스, ch.4, 짧은 버전, 로버츠-도널드슨 번역

    1.  

우리는 또한 의사로서 우리 하나님이 그리스도를 유일한 자와 말씀으로 예수, 시간이 시작되기 전에, 그러나 나중에 마리아의 사람, 처녀마리아의 사람이되었다. '말씀은 육체로 만들어졌습니다.' 그는 몸 안에 있었다. 통과할 수 없는 존재인 그는 지나가는 몸안에 있었다. 불멸의 존재인 그는 필멸의 몸안에 있었다. 그분은 삶이되시고, 우리의 영혼을 죽음과 부패로부터 해방하시고, 그들을 치유하시고, 경건하지 않고 사악한 욕망으로 병에 걸린 그들을 건강으로 회복시킬 수 있도록 부패의 대상이 되셨습니다.

 에페시안에게 보내는안디옥의 성 이그나티우스, ch.7, 더 짧은 버전, 로버츠-도널드슨 번역

    1.  

교회는 온 세상에 흩어져 있지만, 심지어 지상의 끝까지, 사도와 그들의 제자들로부터 이 신앙을 받았다: ... 하나님, 전능하신 하나님, 하늘의 주선자, 땅과 바다, 그리고 그 안에 있는 모든 것; 그리고 어느 그리스도 안에서 예수, 하나님의 아들, 누가 우리의 구원을 위해 육신화되었다; 그리고 선지자들을 통해 하나님의 경륜의 시대와 출현, 처녀로부터의 탄생, 죽은 자로부터의 열정과 부활, 사랑하는 그리스도 예수의 육체로 하늘로 승천, 우리의 주님, 그리고 아버지의 영광 속에서 하늘에서 나타난 그분의 표현이 '한 번에 모든 것을 모으라'고 선포한 성령과 성령안에서 보이지 않는 아버지의 뜻에 따라 그리스도께예수, 우리 주님과 하나님, 구주, 그리고 왕에게 '모든 무릎을 꿇고 하늘에 있는 것들과 지상에 있는 것들, 그리고 지상에 있는 것들, 그리고 모든 혀가 고백해야 한다. 그에게, 그리고 그분은 모든 사람을 향한 심판만 을 실행해야 한다는 것입니다...

— 이단에 대항하는세인트 이레나유스, ch. X, v.I, 도널드슨, 제임스 경 (1950), 앤티 니센 아버지, 볼륨 1: 사도아버지, 저스틴 순교자, 이레나우스,윌리엄 B. Eerdmans 출판 주식, ISBN 978-0-8028-8087-1

    1.  

하나님의 이름으로, 우주의 아버지와 주님, 그리고 우리의 구주 예수 그리스도와 성령의 이름으로, 그들은 물로 씻는 것을 받기 를 위해

— 저스틴 순교자 첫 사과,Ch. LXI, 도널드슨, 제임스 경 (1950), 앤티 니친 아버지, 볼륨 1: 사도의 아버지, 저스틴 순교자, 이레네우스,Wm.B. Eerdmans 출판사, ISBN 978-0-8028-8087-1

  1.  
  2. ^ 올슨, 로저 E. (2002). 삼위일체. Wm.B. 어드먼스 출판. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8028-4827-7.
  3. ^ 파울러. 세계 종교: 학생들을 위한 소개. p. 58.
  4. ^ θî 리델, 헨리 조지; 스콧, 로버트; 페르세우스 프로젝트의 그리스어-영어 렉시콘.
  5. ^ 하퍼, 더글러스. "삼위일체". 온라인 어화 사전.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a B 트리니타스. 찰튼 T. 루이스와 찰스 쇼트. 페르세우스 프로젝트에대한 라틴어 사전 .
  7. ^ 트리아스. 찰튼 T. 루이스와 찰스 쇼트. 페르세우스 프로젝트에대한 라틴어 사전 .
  8. ^ 안디옥의 테오필루스. "책 II.15". 사과 광고 자동 사과. 순찰에 그레카 커서스 컴플레투스 (그리스와 라틴어). 6. Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.
  9. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 의 기독교 역사. p. 50.
  10. ^ Tertullian, "21", De Pudicitia (라틴어), Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus. .
  11. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 기독교의 역사,p. 53.
  12. ^ 몰트만, 위르겐. 삼위일체와 왕국: 하나님의 교리. 독일어에서 Tr. 요새 프레스, 1993. ISBN0-8006-2825-X
  13. ^ 한낙, 도그마의 역사.
  14. ^ 교회 역사의 포켓 사전 네이선 P. 펠드메스 p. 135 "유니테리언주의. 16세기에 개신교 기독교의 시작에서 단합자들이 하나님의 단합과 삼위일체 교리에 대한 후속 거부에 초점을 맞추고 나타났다."
  15. ^ Jump up to:a B 길, N.S. "어느 나라가 먼저 기독교를 채택했는가?" About.com. 2011년 10월 8일 검색. 아르메니아는 A.D. 301의 전통적인 날짜에 기독교를 국가 종교로 채택 한 최초의 국가로 간주됩니다.
  16. ^ 토마스 아퀴나스, 섬마 테오로직섬, 보충 테르티아 파르티스 질문 69~99
  17. ^ 캘빈, 존. "기독교 종교의 종교 기관, 책 세, Ch. 25" reformed.org. 2008년 1월 1일에 검색되었습니다.
  18. ^ 가톨릭 백과 사전,"특정 판단".
  19. ^ Ott, 그런드리아스 데르 도그마티크,p. 566.
  20. ^ 데이비드 모저, 정교회가 죽은 자를 위한 기도에 관하여 믿는 것.
  21. ^ 켄 콜린스, 내가 죽을 때 나에게 무슨 일이 일어나는가? 2008년 9월 28일 웨이백 머신에서 보관.
  22. ^ "1999년 8월 4일 의 관객". Vatican.va. 1999년 8월 4일. 2010년 11월 19일에 검색되었습니다.
  23. ^ 가톨릭 백과 사전,"성도들의 친교".
  24. ^ "아담이 세상에 가져온 죽음은 육체적인 영적 것이며, 하나님의 왕국에 들어오게 된 자들만이 영원히 존재할 것입니다. 그러나 이 분단은 모든 사람이 부활하여 영생을 얻을 기회가 주어지기 전까지는 아마겟돈이 일어나지 않을 것이다. 그 동안 ,"죽은 아무것도 의식하지 않습니다." 지상에 대한 하나님의 목적은 무엇인가?" 여호와의 증인의 공식 사이트. 파수대,2002년 7월 15일.
  25. ^ Jump up to:a B 화이트 2010,pp. 71-82
  26. ^ 러셀, 토마스 아서 (2010). 비교 기독교 : 종교와 다양한 전통에 대한 학생의 가이드. 유니버설 퍼블리셔. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-59942-877-2.
  27. ^ Jump up to:a B 저스틴 순교자, 첫 사과 §LXVII
  28. ^ 화이트 2010,p. 36
  29. ^ 위트플리엣, 존 D. (2007). 기독교 예배의 성경 시편: 자원에 대한 간략한 소개와 안내서. Wm.B. 어드먼스 출판. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8028-0767-0. 2020년 6월 24일에 검색되었습니다.
  30. ^ 월워크, 노먼 (2019). "찬송가 책의 목적"(PDF) . 영국의 공동 전례 그룹. 2020년 6월 24일에 검색되었습니다.
  31. ^ 예를 들어, 달력, 영국 교회, 2020년 6월 25일 검색
  32. ^ 이그나지오 실론, 빵과 와인 (1937).
  33. ^ 벤츠, 에른스트 (2008). 동부 정교회: 그 생각과 삶. 트랜잭션 게시자. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-202-36575-6.
  34. ^ 폐쇄 친교이해,"따라서, 우리의 회중과 우리의 교단은 '닫거나 폐쇄 친교'라고 하는 것을 실천, 당신이 우리의 교회에서 친교를 하기 전에, 우리는 제대로 친교 클래스를 먼저 가지고 친교 클래스를 취할 것을 요청합니다."Archive.org
  35. ^ 가톨릭 교회의 교리 1415.
  36. ^ "열린 테이블: 연합 감리교가 친교를 이해하는 방법 – 연합 감리교회" 연합 감리교회. 2020년 6월 24일에 검색되었습니다.
  37. ^ 영국 교회의 캐논 B28
  38. ^ Jump up to:a b c 크로스/리빙스톤. 기독교 교회의 옥스포드 사전. pp. 1435ff.
  39. ^ 로버트 폴 라이트너, 복음주의 신학 수첩,크레겔 아카데믹, 미국, 1995년, p. 234
  40. ^ 오스트레일리아, 뉴질랜드, 레바논 대교구, 동쪽의 거룩한 사도 가톨릭 아시리아 교회.
  41. ^ 젠, 프랭크 C. (2012). 기독교 전례 소개. 요새 프레스. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4514-2433-1.예를 들어, 마리아, 요셉, 침례 요한의 일(예: 8월 15일, 3월 19일, 6월 24일, 각각)은 로마 가톨릭 달력에서 엄숙함으로 평가되며, 성공회와 루터교 달력에서는 각각 거룩한 날이나 적은 축제입니다.
  42. ^ Jump up to:a B 포르테스쿠, 아드리안 (1912). "기독교 달력". 가톨릭 백과 사전. 로버트 애플턴 컴퍼니. 2014년 7월 18일에 검색되었습니다.
  43. ^ Hickman. 기독교 연도의 핸드북.
  44. ^ "ANF04. 3세기의 아버지: 테르툴리안, 제4부; 미누수스 펠릭스; 콤모디아; 오리겐, 부품 1, 2| 기독교 고전 에테리얼 라이브러리". Ccel.org. 2005년 6월 1일. 2009년 5월 5일 검색.
  45. ^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX).
  46. ^ "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3)
  47. ^ Jump up to:a b Dilasser. The Symbols of the Church.
  48. ^ Jump up to:a b Catholic Encyclopedia, "Symbolism of the Fish".
  49. ^ "Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1213 Archived 22 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine); "Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" (Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal ); "Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" (By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF) Archived 13 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine;
    "As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" (William H. Brackney, Doing Baptism Baptist Style – Believer's Baptism Archived 7 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
  50. ^ "After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" (Orthodox Church in America: Baptism). Archived 12 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  51. ^ "In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "Baptism Archived 30 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine".
  52. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 403, 1231, 1233, 1250, 1252.
  53. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 1240.
  54. ^ Randall Herbert Balmer, Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 54
  55. ^ Donald W. Dayton, The Variety of American Evangelicalism, Univ. of Tennessee Press, USA, 2001, p. 155, 159
  56. ^ David Blankenhorn, The Faith Factor in Fatherhood: Renewing the Sacred Vocation of Fathering, Lexington Books, USA, 1999, p. 103
  57. ^ "Matthew 6:9–13 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV)". Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  58. ^ Jordan, Anne (2000). Christianity. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0-7487-5320-8. When he was standing on a hillside, Jesus explained to his followers how they were to behave as God would wish. The talk has become known as the Sermon on the Mount, and is found in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 5, 6 and 7. During the talk Jesus taught his followers how to pray and he gave them an example of suitable prayer. Christians call the prayer the Lord's Prayer, because it was taught by the Lord, Jesus Christ. It is also known as the Pattern Prayer as it provides a pattern for Christians to follow in prayer, to ensure that they pray in the way God and Jesus would want.
  59. ^ Milavec, Aaron (2003). The Didache: Faith, Hope, & Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-0537-3. Given the placement of the Lord's Prayer in the Didache, it was to be expected that the new member of the community would come to learn and to pray the Lord's Prayer at the appointed hours three times each day only after baptism (8:2f.).
  60. ^ Beckwith, Roger T. (2005). Calendar, Chronology And Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism And Early Christianity. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-14603-7. So three minor hours of prayer were developed, at the third, sixth and ninth hours, which, as Dugmore points out, were ordinary divisions of the day for worldly affairs, and the Lord's Prayer was transferred to those hours.
  61. ^ Henry Chadwick (1993). The Early Church. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-16042-8. Hippolytus in the Apostolic Tradition directed that Christians should pray seven times a day - on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.
  62. ^ Lössl, Josef (17 February 2010). The Early Church: History and Memory. A&C Black. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-567-16561-9. Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin oriens).
  63. ^ Kurian, Jake. ""Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers". Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  64. ^ Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney (1906). A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Methuen. p. 399. Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one of more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.
  65. ^ Hippolytus. "Apostolic Tradition" (PDF). St. John's Episcopal Church. pp. 8, 16, 17. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  66. ^ Alexander, T.D.; Rosner, B.S, eds. (2001). "Prayer". New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
  67. ^ Ferguson, S.B. & Packer, J. (1988). "Saints". New Dictionary of Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
  68. ^ Madeleine Gray, The Protestant Reformation, (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), p. 140.
  69. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 2559.
  70. ^ "The Book of Common Prayer". Church of England. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  71. ^ Virkler, Henry A. (2007). Ayayo, Karelynne Gerber (ed.). Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8010-3138-0.
  72. ^ "Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 9 September 2010.(§105–108)
  73. ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God
  74. ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text
  75. ^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 39.
  76. ^ Jump up to:a b Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: the story behind who changed the Bible and why. San Francisco: Harper ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 pp. 183, 209
  77. ^ "1 Timothy 2:11–12 NIV – A woman should learn in quietness and". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  78. ^ "1 Corinthians 14:34–35 NIV – Women should remain silent in the". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  79. ^ "1 corinthians 11:2–16 NIV – On Covering the Head in Worship – I". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  80. ^ Wright, N.T. (1992). The New Testament and the People of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 435–443. ISBN 978-0-8006-2681-5.
  81. ^ "The Gospel of Thomas Collection – Translations and Resources". Gnosis.org. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  82. ^ "Luke 17:20–21 NIV – The Coming of the Kingdom of God". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  83. ^ "Reflections on religions". Mmnet.com.au. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  84. ^ John Bowker, 2011, The Message and the Book, UK, Atlantic Books, page 13-14
  85. ^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 69–78.
  86. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115–118. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  87. ^ Thomas Aquinas, "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"Archived 6 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  88. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116 Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  89. ^ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19) Archived 31 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
  90. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  91. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85. Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  92. ^ Keith A. Mathison (2001). "Introduction". The Shape of Sola Scriptura. Canon Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-885767-74-5.
  93. ^ Jump up to:a b Foutz, Scott David. "Martin Luther and Scripture". Quodlibet Journal. Archived from the original on 14 April 2000. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  94. ^ John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14–18
  95. ^ Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
  96. ^ Sproul. Knowing Scripture, pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6).
  97. ^ Jump up to:a b Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House. p. 565. ISBN 978-0-8010-3413-8.
  98. ^ Johnson, Elliott (1990). Expository hermeneutics : an introduction. Grand Rapids Mich.: Academie Books. ISBN 978-0-310-34160-4.
  99. ^ Terry, Milton (1974). Biblical hermeneutics : a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House. p. 205. (1890 edition page 103, view1, view2)
  100. ^ e.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.1). Matthew Henry interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion.
  101. ^ Rainer Riesner (1998). Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 86–87.
  102. ^ "Monastère de Mor Mattai – Mossul – Irak" (in French). Archived from the originalon 3 March 2014.
  103. ^ Catherine Cory (13 August 2015). Christian Theological Tradition. Routledge. p. 20 and forwards. ISBN 978-1-317-34958-7.
  104. ^ Stephen Benko (1984). Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana University Press. p. 22 and forwards. ISBN 978-0-253-34286-7.
  105. ^ McGrath, Alister E. (2006), Christianity: An Introduction, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 174, ISBN 1-4051-0899-1
  106. ^ Seifrid, Mark A. (1992). "'Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument". Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme. Novum Testamentum. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 210–211, 246–247. ISBN 90-04-09521-7. ISSN 0167-9732.
  107. ^ Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-3610-4, Pp. 190–192.; Dunn, James D.G., Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), ISBN 0-8028-4498-7, Pp. 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, The Romans: From Village to Empire, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 0-19-511875-8, p. 426.
  108. ^ 마틴, D. 2010. 신약과 포스트모던 해석의 "사후 생활"은 2016년 6월 8일 웨이백 머신(2016년 8월 12일 웨이백 머신에서 보관)에서 보관되었다. 예일 대학.
  109. ^ 마이클 휘트비, 외. 에드. 크리스티안 박해, 순교와 정통 (2006) 온라인 판
  110. ^ 4세기 에이교회 역사의 저자인 가이사랴의 유세비우스는성 마르가 클라우디우스 황제통치 1~3년차에 이집트에 왔다고 말합니다( 예: 41년 또는 43년 의 콥트 기독교" 오토 F.A. Meinardus p.
  111. ^ 닐 레고가. "서아프리카 기독교 교회의 역사" 2001년 7월 30일 원본에서 보관되었습니다.
  112. ^ "Allaboutreligion.org". Allaboutreligion.org. 2010년 11월 16일 원본에서 보관. 2010년 11월 19일에 검색되었습니다.
  113. ^ "세계 팩트북: 아르메니아" CIA. 2011년 10월 8일 검색.
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  240. ^ 필립 젠킨스 하나님의 대륙,옥스포드: 옥스포드 대학 출판부, 2007, p. 56
  241. ^ Jump up to:a B "세계에서 가장 인기있는 종교의 미래는 아프리카입니다". 이코노미스트. 2015년 12월 25일.
  242. ^ "아르헨티나". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  243. ^ 뢰세르 반드, 남자 요새 통계스키르케 아카이브 8 1월 2014 웨이백 기계에서,ABC Nyheter
  244. ^ 스테이튼 스칼 ikke 렌거 앙제트 비스코퍼,NRK
  245. ^ 포번드, 휴먼 에티스크. "잉겐 avskaffelse: / 슬릭 블러어 덴 nye statskirkeordningen".
  246. ^ "코스타리카". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  247. ^ "덴마크". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  248. ^ "영국의 교회와 국가: 특권의 교회". 시민권 센터. 2008년 5월 11일 원본에서 보관.2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  249. ^ "매케인은 공식 국가 종교로 기독교를 채택 조지아를 칭찬". 믿음넷. 2009년 4월 11일검색.
  250. ^ "엘살바도르". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  251. ^ "아이슬란드" 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  252. ^ "리히텐슈타인". 미국 국무부. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  253. ^ "몰타". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  254. ^ "모나코". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  255. ^ "바티칸". 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  256. ^ "키프로스". 미국 국무부. 2008년 5월 11일 검색.
  257. ^ "세계 기독교 - 세계 기독교 인구의 규모와 분포에 대한 보고서" 2011년 12월 19일.
  258. ^ 분석(2011년 12월 19일). "유럽". Pewforum.org. 2012년 8월 17일에 검색되었습니다.
  259. ^ 분석(2011년 12월 19일). "미주". Pewforum.org. 2012년 8월 17일에 검색되었습니다.
  260. ^ 분석(2011년 12월 19일). "글로벌 종교 지형: 그리스도인" Pewforum.org. 2012년 8월 17일에 검색되었습니다.
  261. ^ 퓨 리서치 센터 (2012년 12월 18일). "세계적인 종교적 지형. 그리스도인"
  262. ^ 분석(2011년 12월 19일). "표: 국가별 종교 구성, 백분율". Pewforum.org. 2012년 8월 17일에 검색되었습니다.
  263. ^ "기독교의 분열". 노스 버지니아 대학. 2007년 12월 31일에 검색되었습니다.
  264. ^ "몰몬 교단을 포함한 후기 성도 회복주의 운동". 종교적 관용. 2007년 12월 31일에 검색되었습니다.
  265. ^ 에르만, 바트 D. (2003). 잃어버린 기독교: 성경과 우리가 결코 알지 못했던 신앙을 위한 전투. 옥스포드 대학 출판부, 미국. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-514183-2.
  266. ^ 시드니의 E. Ahlstrom은미국의 교파주의를 "가상 의 적 민족학"으로 특징 지어지며 "우선 가톨릭 교회의 주장, '심판' 개혁의 교회, 그리고 그들이 혼자가 진정한 교회라는 대부분의 종파를 부인한다"고 말했습니다. (알스트롬, 시드니 E.; 홀, 데이비드 D. (2004). 미국 인민의 종교적 역사 (개정 된 ed.). 예일 대학 출판부. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-300-10012-9.);
  267. ^ "니스 크리드". Encyclopædia 브리타니카 온라인. 엔시클로바이디아 브리타니카. 2007. 2007년 12월 31일에 검색되었습니다.
  268. ^ 제2차 바티칸 공의회, 루멘 겐티움 은 2014년 9월 6일 웨이백 머신에서 보관되었다.
  269. ^ 더피, 성도들과 죄인들,p. 1.
  270. ^ 히치콕, 종교의 지리학,p. 281.
  271. ^ 노먼, 로마 가톨릭 교회 일러스트 역사,pp. 11, 14.
  272. ^ Jump up to:a B 제2차 바티칸 공의회, 루멘 겐티움 은 2014년 9월 6일 웨이백 머신,제2장, 제15항에서 보관되었다.
  273. ^ 가톨릭 교회의 교리주의, 단락 865. 2015년 8월 12일 웨이백 머신에서 보관
  274. ^ 카를들러, 가톨릭 교회의 교리, 전통적인 주제와 현대 문제 (1994), 서문 소개.
  275. ^ 요한 바오로 II, 교황 (1997). "라에타무르 마그노페레" 바티칸. 2008년 2월 11일 원본에서 보관. 2008년 3월 9일 검색.
  276. ^ CCC, 1322-1327, Vatican.va : "성체는 우리의 믿음의 합계와 요약입니다"
  277. ^ "네 마리안 도그마스" 가톨릭 뉴스 에이전시. 2017년 3월 25일에 검색되었습니다.
  278. ^ 아그뉴, 존 (2010년 2월 12일). "Deus Vult: 가톨릭 교회의 지정학". 지정학. 15 (1): 39-61. doi:10.1080/14650040903420388. S2CID 144793259.
  279. ^ 마크 A. 놀. 세계 기독교의 새로운 모양 (다우너스 그로브, 일리노이: IVP 아카데미, 2009), 191.
  280. ^ 오콜린스, p. v (서문).
  281. ^ 안누아리오 폰티피시오 (2012), p. 1142.
  282. ^ 배리, 한 신앙, 한 주님 (2001), p. 71
  283. ^ Central Intelligence Agency, CIA World Factbook (2007).
  284. ^ Jump up to:a b Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents
  285. ^ Zenit.org, "Number of Catholics and Priests Rises Archived 25 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine", 12 February 2007.
  286. ^ Eastern Churches Journal: A Journal of Eastern Christendom. Society of Saint John Chrysostom. 2004. p. 181. His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the 270th successor to the Apostle Andrew and spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.
  287. ^ Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p. 1199.
  288. ^ "The Orthodox Faith – Volume I – Doctrine and Scripture – The Symbol of Faith – Church". www.oca.org. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  289. ^ Meyendorff, John (1983). Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes. Fordham University Press.
  290. ^ Fairchild, Mary. "Christianity:Basics:Eastern Orthodox Church Denomination". about.com. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  291. ^ Ware, Kallistos (29 April 1993). The Orthodox Church. Penguin Adult. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-14-014656-1.
  292. ^ "Oriental Orthodox Churches". Wcc-coe.org. Archived from the original on 6 April 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  293. ^ "An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches". Pluralism.org. 15 March 2005. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  294. ^ OONS. "Syrian Orthodox Resources – Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration". Sor.cua.edu. Archived from the original on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  295. ^ Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 601. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9. Today these churches are also referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches and are made up of 50 million Christians.
  296. ^ "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 November 2017. Oriental Orthodoxy has separate self-governing jurisdictions in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Armenia and Syria, and it accounts for roughly 20% of the worldwide Orthodox population.
  297. ^ "Orthodox churches (Oriental) — World Council of Churches". www.oikoumene.org.
  298. ^ Betts, Robert B. (1978). Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. ISBN 978-0-8042-0796-6.
  299. ^ Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-055-6.
  300. ^ Hindson, Ed; Mitchell, Dan (2013). The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History. Harvest House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7369-4806-7.
  301. ^ Baumer, Christoph (2006). The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity. London-New York: Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-115-1.
  302. ^ Hunter, Erica C.D. (2014). "The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East". In Leustean, Lucian N. (ed.). Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 601–620. ISBN 978-1-317-81866-3.
  303. ^ "CNEWA: Ronald G. Roberson, C.S.P. – The Assyrian Church of the East". Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  304. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 362.
  305. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. pp. 251–259.
  306. ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326
  307. ^ Sykes/Booty/Knight. The Study of Anglicanism, p. 219. Some Anglicans consider their church a branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church" alongside of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, a concept rejected by the Catholic Church, some Eastern Orthodox, and many evangelical Anglicans themselves, for more on this, see Gregory Hallam, Orthodoxy and Ecumenism.
  308. ^ Gregory Mathewes-Green, "Whither the Branch Theory?", Anglican Orthodox PilgrimVol. 2, No. 4. Archived 19 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  309. ^ Benedetto, Robert; Duke, James O. (2008). The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-664-22416-5.
  310. ^ Littell, Franklin H. (2000). The Anabaptist View of the Church. The Baptist Standard Bearer, Inc. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-57978-836-0. In reviewing the records, the reader is struck with the Anabaptists' acute consciousness of separation from the "fallen" church—in which they included the Reformers as well as the Roman institution. Some writers have therefore concluded that Anabaptism is not merely a variant form of Protestantism, but rather an ideology and practice quite different in kind from those of both Rome and the Reformers.
  311. ^ "Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide". Mennonite Church US. 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2018. Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God's Kingdom on earth. We are known as "Anabaptists" (not anti-Baptist)—meaning "rebaptizers."
  312. ^ "About The Methodist Church". Methodist Central Hall Westminster. Archived from the original on 21 January 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  313. ^ "Christianity: Pentecostal Churches". GodPreach, Inc. Archived from the original on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  314. ^ "Statement of Belief". Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  315. ^ "The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45)". The United Methodist Church GBGM. Archived from the original on 13 September 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  316. ^ "God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace". The United Methodist Church GBGM. Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  317. ^ "Total Experience of the Spirit". Warren Wilson College. Archived from the originalon 3 September 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  318. ^ Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter (2009). The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-21100-4.
  319. ^ Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-162013-3.
  320. ^ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word Reformed. It includes Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
  321. ^ World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."
  322. ^ Jump up to:a b Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.)
  323. ^ "Classification of Protestant Denominations" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
  324. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 91ff.
  325. ^ "The Restorationist Movements". Religious Tolerance. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  326. ^ "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Statistics and Church Facts | Total Church Membership". newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  327. ^ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
  328. ^ Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)
  329. ^ Manuscript History of the Church, LDS Church Archives, book A-1, p. 37; reproduced in Dean C. Jessee(comp.) (1989). The Papers of Joseph Smith: Autobiographical and Historical Writings(Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book) 1:302–303.
  330. ^ J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of Protestantism, 2005, p. 543: "Unitarianism – The word unitarian [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA."
  331. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Lochman, Jan Milic; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav (14 February 2008). The Encyclodedia of Christianity, Vol. 5. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 603. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.
  332. ^ Bochenski, Michael I. (14 March 2013). Transforming Faith Communities: A Comparative Study of Radical Christianity in Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism and Late Twentieth-Century Latin America. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62189-597-8.
  333. ^ Jarvis, Edward (2018), God, Land & Freedom: The True Story of ICAB, Berkeley CA: The Apocryphile Press, ISBN 978-1-947826-90-8
  334. ^ Plummer, John P. (2004). The Many Paths of the Independent Sacramental Movement. Berkeley, CA: The Apocryphile Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-9771461-2-X.
  335. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin (2008). The Encyclodedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.
  336. ^ Fleming, John A.; Rowan, Michael J.; Chambers, James Albert (2004). Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians. University of Alberta. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-88864-418-3. The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country—the only action which seemed possible.
  337. ^ Ariel, Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. Retrieved 9 September 2015. For example, Messianic Jews, without exception, believe that the way to eternal life is through the acceptance of Jesus as one's personal savior and that no obedience to the Jewish law or "works" is necessary in order to obtain that goal....Remarkably, it has been exactly this adherence to the basic Christian evangelical faith that has allowed Messianic Jews to adopt and promote Jewish rites and customs. They are Christians in good standing and can retain whatever cultural attributes and rites they choose.
  338. ^ Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress
  339. ^ Besant, Annie (2001). Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries. City: Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4021-0029-1.
  340. ^ From the Greek ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos, "inner"). The term esotericism itself was coined in the 17th century. (Oxford English Dictionary Compact Edition, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 894.)
  341. ^ Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Antoine Faivre, Roelof van den Broek, Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, Brill 2005.
  342. ^ "Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esotericism". Webster.com. 13 August 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  343. ^ "Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esoteric". Webster.com. Archived from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  344. ^ Jump up to:a b c The Journal of American History. Oxford University Press. 1997. p. 1400. Richard T. Hughes, professor of religion at Pepperdine University, argues that the Churches of Christ built a corporate identity around "restoration" of the primitive church and the corresponding belief that their congregations represented a nondenominational Christianity.
  345. ^ Jump up to:a b Barnett, Joe R. (2020). "Who are the Churches of Christ". Southside Church of Christ. Retrieved 7 December 2020. Not A Denomination: For this reason, we are not interested in man-made creeds, but simply in the New Testament pattern. We do not conceive of ourselves as being a denomination–nor as Catholic, Protestant, or Jewish—but simply as members of the church which Jesus established and for which he died. And that, incidentally, is why we wear his name. The term “church of Christ” is not used as a denominational designation, but rather as a descriptive term indicating that the church belongs to Christ.
  346. ^ Nash, Donald A. "Why the Churches of Christ Are Not A Denomination" (PDF). The Christian Restoration Association. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  347. ^ Hughes, Richard Thomas; Roberts, R. L. (2001). The Churches of Christ. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-313-23312-8. Barton Stone was fully prepared to ally himself with Alexander Campbell in an effort to promote nondenominational Christianity, though it is evident that the two men came to this emphasis by very different routes.
  348. ^ Cherok, Richard J. (14 June 2011). Debating for God: Alexander Campbell's Challenge to Skepticism in Antebellum America. ACU Press. ISBN 978-0-89112-838-0. Later proponents of Campbell's views would refer to themselves as the “Restoration Movement” because of the Campbellian insistence on restoring Christianity to its New Testament form. ... Added to this mix were the concepts of American egalitarianism, which gave rise to his advocacy of nondenominational individualism and local church autonomy, and Christian primitivism, which led to his promotion of such early church practices as believer's baptism by immersion and the weekly partaking of the Lord's Supper.
  349. ^ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
  350. ^ Jump up to:a b Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
  351. ^ Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. The Age of Enlightenment: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
  352. ^ Dawson, Christopher; Olsen, Glenn (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
  353. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Forms of Christian education
  354. ^ Hough, Susan Elizabeth (2007), Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man, Princeton University Press, p. 68, ISBN 978-0-691-12807-8
  355. ^ Woods 2005, p. 109.
  356. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Jesuit
  357. ^ Wallace, William A. (1984). Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science. NJ: Princeton University Press.
  358. ^ Sztompka, 2003
  359. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and social welfare
  360. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Care for the sick
  361. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Property, poverty, and the poor,
  362. ^ Weber, Max (1905). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
  363. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2016). Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set. Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-78720-304-4. ... In the centuries succeeding the REFORMATION the teaching of Protestantism was consistent on the nature of work. Some Protestant theologians also contributed to the study of economics, especially the nineteenth-century Scottish minister THOMAS CHALMERS....
  364. ^ Sir Banister Fletcher, History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.
  365. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and state
  366. ^ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)
  367. ^ Eveleigh, Bogs (2002). Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation. Stroud, England: Sutton.
  368. ^ Henry Gariepy (2009). Christianity in Action: The History of the International Salvation Army. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8028-4841-3.
  369. ^ Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-88920-912-1. ... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ...
  370. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage
  371. ^ Rawson, Beryl Rawson (2010). A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. John Wiley & Sons. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-4443-9075-9. ...Christianity placed great emphasis on the family and on all members from children to the aged...
  372. ^ Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p. 4
  373. ^ Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-226-07080-3.
  374. ^ Kitty Ferguson (2011). Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe. Icon Books Limited. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-84831-250-0. It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language
  375. ^ 카세르, 칼 (2011). 발칸 반도와 근동 : 공유 역사에 대한 소개. LIT 베를라그 뮌스터. p. 135. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5.
  376. ^ 레미 브래그, 이슬람 문명에 아시리아 공헌
  377. ^ 브리타니카, 네스토리안
  378. ^ "역사상 가장 영향력 있는 100명의 종교"
  379. ^ "위대한 철학자들의 종교"
  380. ^ A. 스피넬로, 리처드 (2012). 존 폴 II의 회칙 : 소개와 해설. 로먼 & 리틀필드 퍼블리셔. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4422-1942-7. ... 기독교 철학에 대한 통찰은 "기독교 신앙의 직접적 또는 간접적인 기여없이는 일어나지 않았을 것"(FR 76). 전형적인 기독교 철학자로는 세인트 어거스틴, 세인트 보나벤처, 세인트 토마스 아퀴나스등이 있습니다. 기독교 철학에서 파생 된 혜택은 두 가지입니다....
  381. ^ 길리, 셰리던 (2006). 기독교의 케임브리지 역사: 볼륨 8, 세계 기독교 C.1815-c.1914. 브라이언 스탠리. 케임브리지 대학 출판부. p. 164. ISBN 0-521-81456-1. ... 이러한 발전에 기여한 과학자 중 상당수는 기독교인들이었습니다...
  382. ^ 스테인, 앤드류 (2014). 과학에 충실: 종교에서 과학의 역할. OUP 옥스포드. p. 179. ISBN978-0-19-102513-6. ... 과학에 대한 기독교의 기여는 최상위 수준에서 균일하게되어 왔지만, 그 수준에 도달했으며 전체적으로 충분히 강했습니다 ...
  383. ^ "과학의 기독교 영향". rae.org2015년 9월 24일 원본에서 보관되었습니다.
  384. ^ "Y1K에서 Y2K에 이르기까지 세계 최고의 창조 과학자". creationsafaris.com2016년 1월 15일에 원본에서 보관되었습니다.
  385. ^ "세계 역사를 형성 한 100 과학자".
  386. ^ "50 노벨상 수상자와 하나님을 믿는 다른 위대한 과학자". 서양 과학에 영향을 준 많은 유명한 역사적 인물들은 니콜라우스 코페르니쿠스, 갈릴레오 갈릴레이, 요하네스 케플러, 아이작 뉴턴, 로버트 보일, 알레산드로 볼타, 마이클 패러데이, 윌리엄 톰슨, 제1남작 켈빈, 제임스 서기 맥스웰과 같은 기독교로 간주했다.
  387. ^ S. 크로거, 윌리엄 (2016). 의학, 치과 및 심리학에서 임상 및 실험 최면. 피클 파트너 게시. ISBN 978-1787203044. 많은 저명한 가톨릭 의사와 심리학자는 의학, 치과 및 심리학에서 최면에 상당한 기여를했습니다.
  388. ^ "세계 최고의 예술가들의 종교적 소속"
  389. ^ 홀, p. 100.
  390. ^ "부유한 100과 100 비즈니스에서 가장 영향력있는".
  391. ^ 100년 노벨상(2003년), 대서양 출판사 및 배급사, p. 57: 1901년부터 2000년까지 654명의 수상자가 28개 종교에 속한다는 사실이 밝혀졌습니다. 대부분(65.4%) 다양한 형태의 기독교를 종교적 취향으로 확인했습니다. ISBN 978-0-935047-37-0
  392. ^ G.C. 오스투이젠. 아프리카의 기독교 . C허스트 & 공동 퍼블리셔 (1968). ISBN 0-903983-05-2
  393. ^ 제임스 D. 맬로리, 스탠리 C. 볼드윈, 꼬임과 나 : 왜곡되지 않은 생활에 대한 정신과 의사의 가이드,1973, p. 64
  394. ^ Jump up to:a B "해상도". 연방 의회 게시판. 미국 그리스도 교회의 연방 위원회의 종교 홍보 서비스. 25–27. 1942.
  395. ^ Jump up to:a B 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 레이션 역사 기독교,pp. 581-584.
  396. ^ 피치, 안토니아 (2019년 3월 15일). 수용적 에큐메니즘과 에큐메니칼 운동의 갱신: 적도 개종의 길. 브릴 학술 출판사. p. 131. ISBN 978-90-04-39780-4.
  397. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 의 기독교 역사. pp. 413ff.
  398. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 기독교의 역사,p. 498.
  399. ^ Jump up to:a B 기독교에 옥스포드 동반자 생각. 옥스포드: 옥스포드 대학 출판부. 2000. p. 694. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
  400. ^ 옥스포드, "기독교의 백과사전, p. 307.
  401. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 기독교의 역사,p. 373.
  402. ^ 맥매너스, 옥스포드 일러스트 기독교의 역사,p. 583.
  403. ^ "감리교 성명서"(PDF). 2010년 1월 16일에 원본(PDF)에서 보관되었습니다. 2010년 11월 19일에 검색되었습니다.
  404. ^ 국제 표준 성경 백과 사전: 제프리 W. 브로마일리 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 p. 175에 의해 E-J
  405. ^ 유대인과 기독교인: 길의 이별, 제임스 D.G. 던 1999 ISBN 0-8028-4498-7 pp. 112-113에 의해 A.D. 70 에서 135
  406. ^ 애셔 노먼 26 왜 유대인 예수 펠트하임 출판사 믿지 않는 이유 2007 ISBN 978-0-977-19370-7 p. 11
  407. ^ 키스 아커스 예수 잃어버린 종교 : 초기 기독교에서 간단한 생활과 비폭력. 등불 책 2000 ISBN 978-1-930-05126-3 p. 103
  408. ^ 퍼거슨, 에버렛 (1993). 초기 기독교의 배경 (두 번째 ed.). 그랜드 래피즈, 미시간: 윌리엄 B. 어르드먼스 출판 회사. pp. 562-564. ISBN 978-0-8028-0669-7.
  409. ^ 토마스, 스티븐 (2004). "셀수스". 맥구킹에서 존 앤서니 (에드.). 웨스트 민스터 수첩 오리겐. 켄터키 주 루이스빌: 웨스트민스터 존 녹스 프레스. pp. 72-73. ISBN 978-0-664-22472-1.
  410. ^ Jump up to:a B 올슨, 로저 E. (1999), 기독교 신학의 이야기: 전통과 개혁의 20 세기,다우너스 그로브, IL: InterVarsity 프레스, p. 101, ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0
  411. ^ 맥구핀, 존 앤서니 (2004). "오리겐의 학술 작품". 웨스트 민스터 수첩 오리겐. 루이스빌, 켄터키: 웨스트민스터 존 녹스 프레스. pp. 32-34. ISBN 978-0-664-22472-1.
  412. ^ 퍼거슨, 에버렛 (1993). 초기 기독교의 배경 (두 번째 ed.). 그랜드 래피즈, MI: 윌리엄 B. 어드먼스 퍼블리싱 컴퍼니. pp. 556-561. ISBN 978-0-8028-0669-7.
  413. ^ Sherwin-White, A.N. (April 1964). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? – An Amendment". Past and Present. 27 (27): 23–27. doi:10.1093/past/27.1.23. JSTOR 649759.
  414. ^ The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1 by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 ISBN 0-8108-6987-X p. 527
  415. ^ Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 ISBN 90-04-13085-3 pp. 32–33
  416. ^ A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 ISBN 0-521-82692-6 p. 168
  417. ^ The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 ISBN 0-521-36767-0 pp. 90–93
  418. ^ Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 ISBN 0-415-18091-0 pp. 77–87
  419. ^ Christianity: An Introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0899-1 pp. 125–126.
  420. ^ " The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems ", published 2011 by American Atheist press, Cranford, NJ, ISBN 1-57884-017-1
  421. ^ James L. Barton, Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917. Gomidas Institute, 1998, ISBN 1-884630-04-9.
  422. ^ Kaplan, S. (1 January 2005). ""Religious Nationalism": A Textbook Case from Turkey". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 25 (3): 665–676. doi:10.1215/1089201x-25-3-665. ISSN 1089-201X.
  423. ^ Weber, Jeremy. "'Worst year yet’: the top 50 countries where it’s hardest to be a Christian". Christianity Today. 11 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  424. ^ Enos, Olivia. "North Korea is the world's worst persecutor of Christians". Forbes. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  425. ^ Worldwatchlist2020, Most dangerous countries for Christians. "Serving Persecuted Christians – Open Doors USA". www.opendoorsusa.org. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  426. ^ Mounstephen, Philip. "Interim report". Bishop of Truro’s Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  427. ^ Jump up to:a b Mounstephen, Philip. "Final Report and Recommendations". Bishop of Truro’sIndependent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. July 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  428. ^ Kay, Barbara. "Our politicians may not care, but Christians are under siege across the world". National Post. 8 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  429. ^ ἀπολογητικός, ἀπολογέομαι in Liddell and Scott.
  430. ^ Dulles, Avery Robert Cardinal (2005). A History of Apologetics. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-89870-933-9.
  431. ^ L Russ Bush, ed. (1983). Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-310-45641-4.
  432. ^ "Why I Believe in Christianity – Society of Gilbert Keith Chesterton".
  433. ^ Hauser, Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014) (Fall 2011). "Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton's Philosophy of Christian Paradox". The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought. 6 (1): 16–20. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
  434. ^ "Christianity". 6 December 2010.
  435. ^ Howson, Colin (2011). Objecting to God. Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-139-49856-2. Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that 'even if the non-believers don't like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation'. ... William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior proof that there is a God who created this universe.

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